Perfumes et al

I saw Perfume, the story of a Murder recently, as was intrigued by perfumes and how they came about. A lot of this post is from wikipedia, because it seemed to have the most comprehensive detail on this topic, but of course there are the AJ specials too, which you wont find anywhere else easily... :-)
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, animals, objects, and living spaces a pleasant scent.Perfumes have been known to exist in some of the earliest human civilisations either through ancient texts or from archaeological digs. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin, which allowed for the composition of perfumes with smells previously unattainable solely from natural aromatics alone.
The word perfume used today derives from the Latin per fumus, meaning "through smoke". Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt and was further refined by the Romans and Persians.

Although perfume and perfumery also existed in India, much of its fragrances are incense based. The earliest distillation of Attar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita. The Harshacharita, written in 7th century in Northern India mentions use of fragrant agarwood oil.
The world's first recorded chemist is considered to be a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia.The Arabian chemist, Al-Kindi (Alkindus), wrote in the 9th century a book on perfumes which he named Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations. It contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume making equipment, such as the alembic (which still bears its Arabic name).The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.
Concentration

Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types. The concentration by percent/volume of perfume oil is as follows:

* Perfume extract (Extrait): 15-40% (IFRA: typical 20%) aromatic compounds
* Eau de Parfum (EdP), Parfum de Toilette (PdT): 10-20% (typical ~15%) aromatic compounds. Sometimes listed as "eau de perfume" or "millésime".
* Eau de Toilette (EdT): 5-15% (typical ~10%) aromatic compounds
* Eau de Cologne (EdC): Chypre citrus type perfumes with 3-8% (typical ~5%) aromatic compounds
* Splash and After shave: 1-3% aromatic compounds

Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent, though this is not always the case, and its necessity is disputed. By far the most common solvent for perfume oil dilution is ethanol or a mixture of ethanol and water. Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling oils such as fractionated coconut oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil.

The intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds (natural essential oils / perfume oils) used: As the percentage of aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent created. Different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes. Therefore, although the oil concentration of a perfume in Eau de Parfum (EdP) dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in Eau de Toilette (EdT) from within the same range, the actual amounts can vary between perfume houses. An EdT from one house may be stronger than an EdP from another.

Men's fragrances are rarely sold as EdP or perfume extracts; equally so, women's fragrances are rarely sold in EdC concentrations. Although this gender specific naming trend is common for assigning fragrance concentrations, it does not directly have anything to do with whether a fragrance was intended for men or women. Furthermore, some fragrances with the same product name but having a different concentration name may not only differ in their dilutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether. For instance, in order to make the EdT version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EdP, the EdT oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or fewer base notes. In some cases, words such as extrême, intense, or concentrée that might indicate aromatic concentration are actually completely different fragrances, related only because of a similar perfume accord. An example of this is Chanel's Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentrée.
The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements of the fragrance notes of the scent or the "family" it belongs to, all of which affect the overall impression of a perfume from first application to the last lingering hint of scent.
Fragrance Notes
Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of notes, making the harmonious scent accord. The notes unfold over time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume.

* Top notes: The scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a person's initial impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume. Also called the head notes.
* Middle notes: The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior to when the top notes dissipate. The middle note compounds form the "heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time. They are also called the heart notes.
* Base notes: The scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application.
The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base notes, as well the scents of the base notes will be altered by the type of fragrance materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers of perfumes usually publish perfume notes and typically they present it as fragrance pyramid, with the components listed in imaginative and abstract terms.
Classification by olfactive family is a starting point for a description of a perfume, but it cannot by itself denote the specific characteristic of that perfume.

Traditional

The traditional classification which emerged around 1900 comprised the following categories:

* Single Floral: Fragrances that are dominated by a scent from one particular flower; in French called a soliflore. (e.g. Serge Lutens' Sa Majeste La Rose, which is dominated by rose.)
* Floral Bouquet: Is a combination of fragrance of several flowers in a perfume compound e.g. Attar Majmua & Fancy Boquet etc.
* Ambered, or "Oriental": A large fragrance class featuring the sweet slightly animalic scents of ambergris or labdanum, often combined with vanilla, tonka bean, flowers and woods. Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, which bring to mind Victorian era imagery of the Middle East and Far East.
* Wood: Fragrances that are dominated by woody scents, typically of agarwood, sandalwood and cedarwood. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. A traditional example here would be Myrurgia's Maderas De Oriente or Chanel Bois-des-Îles. A modern example would be Balenciaga Rumba.
* Leather: A family of fragrances which features the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in its middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather.
* Chypre: Meaning Cyprus in French, this includes fragrances built on a similar accord consisting of bergamot, oakmoss, patchouli, and labdanum. This family of fragrances is named after a perfume by François Coty.
* Fougère: Meaning Fern in French, built on a base of lavender, onion, coumarin and oakmoss. Houbigant's Fougère Royale pioneered the use of this base. Many men's fragrances belong to this family of fragrances, which is notcharacterized by its sharp herbaceous and woody scent. Some well-known modern fougères are Fabergé Brut and Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir.

Modern

Since 1945, due to great advances in the technology of perfume creation (i.e., compound design and synthesis) as well as the natural development of styles and tastes; new categories have emerged to describe modern scents:

* Bright Floral: combining the traditional Single Floral & Floral Bouquet categories. A good example would be Estée Lauder's Beautiful.
* Green: a lighter and more modern interpretation of the Chypre type, with pronounced cut grass, crushed green leaf and cucumber-like scents. Two examples would be Estée Lauder's Aliage or Sisley's Eau de Campagne.
* Aquatic, Oceanic, or Ozonic: the newest category in perfume history, appearing in 1991 with Christian Dior's Dune. A very clean, modern smell leading to many of the modern androgynous perfumes. Generally contains calone, a synthetic scent discovered in 1966. Also used to accent floral, oriental, and woody fragrances.
* Citrus: An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de colognes, due to the low tenacity of citrus scents. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of primarily citrus fragrances. A good example here would be Hermès's Eau D'orange Verte.
* Fruity: featuring the aromas of fruits other than citrus, such as peach, cassis (black currant), mango, passion fruit, and others. A modern example here would be Ginestet Botrytis.
* Gourmand: scents with "edible" or "dessert"-like qualities. These often contain notes like vanilla, tonka bean and coumarin, as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors. A sweet example is Thierry Mugler's Angel. A savory example would be Dinner by BoBo, which has cumin and curry hints.

Fragrance wheel
The Fragrance wheel is a relatively new classification method that is widely used in retail and in the fragrance industry. The method was created in 1983 by Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume industry, who designed his own scheme of fragrance classification. The new scheme was created in order to simplify fragrance classification and naming scheme, as well as to show the relationships between each of the individual classes.The five standard families consist of Floral, Oriental, Woody, Fougère, and Fresh, with the former four families being more "classic" while the latter consisting of newer bright and clean smelling citrus and oceanic fragrances that have arrived due to improvements in fragrance technology. Each of the families are in turn divided into sub-groups and arranged around a wheel.

Aromatics sources

Plant sources

Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators. Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petitgrain, neroli, and orange oils.

* Bark: Commonly used barks includes cinnamon and cascarilla. The fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds.
* Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest source of aromatics. Includes the flowers of several species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, plumeria, mimosa, tuberose, narcissus, scented geranium, cassie, ambrette as well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees. Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also commonly used. Most orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of vanilla, an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery.
* Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are synthetic. Notable exceptions include litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry. The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such as oranges, lemons, and limes. Although grapefruit rind is still used for aromatics, more and more commercially used grapefruit aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural aromatic contains sulfur and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell.
* Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include hay and tomato leaf.
* Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery. Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, Peru balsam, gum benzoin. Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds. Some of what is called amber and copal in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers.
* Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family.
* Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise.
* Woods: Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms.


Animal sources

* Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the sperm whale. Ambergris is commonly referred to as "amber" in perfumery and should not be confused with yellow amber, which is used in jewelry. Because the harvesting of ambergris involves no harm to its animal source, it remains one of the few animalic fragrancing agents around which little controversy now exists.
* Castoreum: Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver.
* Civet: Also called Civet Musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the family Viverridae, related to the mongoose. The World Society for the Protection of Animals investigated African civets caught for this purpose.
* Hyraceum: Commonly known as "Africa Stone", is the petrified excrement of the Rock Hyrax
* Musk: Originally derived from the musk sacs from the Asian musk deer, it has now been replaced by the use of synthetic musks sometimes known as "white musk".

Synthetic sources

Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. Orchid scents (typically salicylates) are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids.

The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They include:

* International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF)
* Givaudan
* Firmenich
* Takasago
* Symrise


Perfume Glossary

This glossary defines some commonly used terms in the world of perfume and fragrance.

Abelmosk: also known as Musk Mallow, and cultivated for its seeds, which are usually referred to as ambrette.

Absinthe: a strong herbal liqueur distilled with herbs like anise, licorice, hyssop, veronica, fennel, lemon balm, angelica and wormwood.

Absolute: also known as an essence, this is the material extracted from a plant or flower using one of various solvents.

Accord: a perfume accord is a balanced blend of notes which lose their individual identity to create a completely new, unified odor impression.

Agar wood: from the Aquilaria tree, and also called Oud or Aloes wood. The tree, when attacked by a common fungus, produces an aromatic resin that has long been used in the Middle East as a source of incense and perfume. Now considered endangered in the wild due to overharvesting.

Amber: in perfumery, this refers to accords developed using plant compounds (such as labdanum) or synthetics, and referred to as amber because they were originally meant to mimic the smell of ambergris (see below). For a more detailed explanation of the relationship between amber and ambergris, click here.

Ambergris: a sperm whale secretion. Sperm whales produce it to protect their stomachs from the beaks of the cuttlefish they swallow. Ambergris was traditionally used as a fixative, but in modern perfumery, ambergris is usually of synthetic origin (including the synthetic compounds ambrox, ambroxan, amberlyn). Ambergris is described as having a sweet, woody odor.

Ambrette: the oil obtained from these seeds has a musk-like odor and is frequently used as a substitute for true musk.

Animalic: refers to animal-derived ingredients such as civet, ambergris, musk, and castoreum. These are usually replaced by synthetics in modern perfumery. In large amounts, many of these notes are unpleasant, but in smaller amounts they provide depth and a sensual feel to a fragrance.

Anise: an annual herb of the parsley family, grown for its fruits (aniseed), which have a strong, licorice-like flavor.

Anosmia: the inability to smell odors. Many people have selective anosmias, for instance, the inability to smell certain synthethic musks.

Artemisia: see Wormwood.

Attar: Attar is the English form of itr, the Arabic word for fragrance or perfume. A traditional attar is made from the distilled essence of floral or other fragrance materials in a base of sandalwood oil.

Baies de Genièvre: French for juniper berry.

Baies Rose: pink peppercorns, from the tree schinus molle, also known as the Peruvian or California pepper tree. These are actually dried berries and not “true” peppercorns, and you will sometimes see them listed as “pink berries”.

Balsam of Peru: a tree resin from Central America, so named because it was historically shipped from Peru. Balsam of Tolu is from a closely related species of tree grown farther south; both resins are said to smell like vanilla and cinnamon.

Bay Rum: a traditional men’s cologne made from the leaves of the Pimenta racemosa (or Bay Rum tree) distilled in a mixture of rum and water.

Benzoin: a balsamic resin from the Styrax tree.

Bergamot: the tangy oil expressed from the nearly ripe, nonedible bergamot orange (a variety of bitter orange). The oranges are grown mostly in Italy and are also used to flavor Earl Grey tea.

Bigarade: a variety of bitter orange, also known as Seville orange. The zest is used to make the bigarade note used in perfumery.

Calone: an aroma chemical that adds a “sea breeze” or marine note, and first used in large quantities in Aramis New West (1988).

Cannelle: French for cinnamon.

Carambole: starfruit.

Cashmeran: an aroma chemical with a spicy, ambery, musky, floral odor. Meant to add a powdery, velvet nuance that invokes the smell or feel of cashmere. Often listed in fragrance notes as “cashmere woods”.

Cassie: floral note from acacia farnesiana (sweet acacia), a member of the mimosa family.

Cassis: black currant, or a liqueur made from black currant.

Castoreum: a secretion from the Castor beaver, or a synthetic substitute. Used to impart a leathery aroma to a fragrance.

Cedrat: French term for citron.

Champaca: a flowering tree of the magnolia family, originally found in India, also called the “Joy Perfume tree” as it was one of the main floral ingredients in that perfume. Traditionally used in Indian incense as well (see nag champa).

Chevrefeuille: French for honeysuckle.

Choya Nakh: a smoky aroma made from roasted seashells.

Chypre: pronounced “sheepra”, French for “Cyprus” and first used by François Coty to describe the aromas he found on the island of Cyprus. He created a woodsy, mossy, citrusy perfume named Chypre (launched by Coty in 1917). Classic chypre fragrances generally had sparkling citrus and floral notes over a dark, earthy base of oakmoss, patchouli, woods and labdanum. See also Perfumista tip: on fragrance families.

Cistus: see Labdanum.

Citron: a citrus fruit tree (citrus medica), sometimes referred to as a cedrat lemon. It is not a true lemon, although it is related to both lemons and limes. The peel is the source of the note citron which is used in perfumery; the leaves and twigs are used to distill cedrat petitgrain.

Civet: the African civet cat looks like a fox, and is related to the mongoose. Civet musk is produced by a gland at the base of the cat’s tail. Pure civet is said to have a strong, disagreeable odor, but in small quantities to add depth and warmth to a fragrance. In addition, civet acts as an excellent fixative. Most modern fragrances use synthetic substitutes.

Clary sage: an herb of the salvia family; the essential oil is described as smelling sweet to bittersweet, with nuances of amber, hay and tobacco.

Clou de girofle: French for clove.

Coffret: a gift box or set. A coffret might include several fragrances, or a fragrance and matching body products.

Copahu (balm): also called Copaiba balsam; an oil obtained from trees of family Copaifera, which grow wild in South America. Described as having a mild, sweet, balsamic peppery smell.

Coumarin: a compound that smells like vanilla. Usually derived from the tonka bean (see Tonka bean), but also found in lavender, sweetgrass and other plants. Coumarin is banned as a food additive in the United States due to toxicity issues, but is used to produce anti-coagulant medicines, rat poison, and as a valuable component of incense and perfumes.

Cuir: French for leather.

Cypriol: an essential oil derived from the roots of Cyperus scariosus, aka Indian papyrus, aka nagarmotha grass. The term cypriol is sometimes used interchangeably with papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) in lists of perfume notes.

Davana: oil derived from artemisia pallens, described as having a sweet, fruity odor.

Elemi: a gum resin which introduces a light, fresh, balsamic-spicy, citrus-like scent.

Epices: French for spices.

Factice: a perfume bottle made for commercial display only — the contents are not actually perfume.

Flanker: a fragrance that capitalizes on the success of a master brand. For instance, J Lo Glow was followed by the flanker scents Miami Glow and Love at First Glow. Many flankers are released as limited editions. Some flanker scents are variations on the original fragrance (i.e. they might share certain notes), others share nothing more than the name.

Fougère: one of the fragrance families (see Perfumista tip: on fragrance families); this one named after the French word for fern and established by the 1884 Houbigant fragrance Fougère Royale. Fougères center on an herbaceous accord that might include notes like lavender, coumarin, oakmoss, woods, and bergamot.

Frangipani: a tropical flower, also known as West Indian Jasmine (although botanically speaking it is not a member of the jasmine family) and plumeria, and is frequently used to make leis.

Frankincense: a gum resin from a tree (genus Boswellia) found in Arabia and Eastern Africa. It is harvested by making an incision in the bark; the milky juice leaks out and is left to harden over a period of months before it is collected. Also called Olibanum.

Galbanum: a gum resin that imparts a “green” smell.

Gourmand: in perfumery, describes fragrances which evoke food smells, such as chocolate, honey, or fruits.

Guaiac (or Gaiac) Wood: the oil is steam distilled from a South American tree that produces the hardest, densest wood known. Also known as ironwood, lignum vitae.

Headspace technology: a method of “capturing” the odor of a substance using an apparatus resembling a bell-jar. This has allowed perfumers to mimic the notes of flowers, plants, and foods which do not lend themselves otherwise to extraction. The different fragrance & flavor companies have their own fragrance capture systems based on headspace technology, including ScentTrek (Givaudan), “Jungle Essence” (Mane), NaturePrint (Firmenich).

Hedione: an aroma chemical said to have a soft but radiant jasmine aroma, and also appreciated for its diffusive effect.

Heliotrope: botanically speaking, this refers to more than one type of flower, but in perfumery, it refers to a flowers of the family heliotropium, which are said to have a strong, sweet vanilla-like fragrance with undertones of almond.

Hesperidia: a general term for citrus oils.

Immortelle: aka everlasting flower aka strawflower; the latin name is helichrysum. Has a greenish, herbaceous, almost bitter smell.

Indole: a chemical compound which smells floral at low concentrations, fecal at high concentrations. Used widely in perfumery, also found naturally in some floral notes, such as jasmine, tuberose and orange blossom.

Iso E Super: an aroma chemical; described by International Flavors & Fragrances as “Smooth, woody, amber note with a ‘velvet’ like sensation. Superb floralizer. Used to impart fullness and subtle strength to fragrances.”

Kalamanzi: also called calamansi, acid orange or Panama orange. A citrus fruit, with a sour flavor said to resemble a cross between mandarin and lime.

Karo Karounde: (sometimes karo karunde) a flowering shrub from Africa. The scent, which is apparently very potent in the wild, has been described as somewhat similar to jasmine, but woodier, spicier and more herbal. Found in L’Artisan Timbuktu, Etro Shaal Nur and Comme des Garcons Sequoia.

Khus: also khus khus. An Indian term for vetiver, or the oil derived from vetiver roots.

Labdanum: an aromatic gum that originates from the rockrose bush (genus Cistus). The sweet woody odor is said to mimic ambergris, and can also be used to impart a leather note.

Licorice: a shrub native to Europe and Asia. The roots are used for candy and flavoring, and are said to be 50 times sweeter than sugar. Almost all licorice candy sold in the United States, however, is flavored with anethole, which is derived from anise.

Lignum Vitae: see Guaiac.

Linden: also called lime-blossom, but this is from the flower of the Linden (Tilia) tree, not the citrus tree that produces limes. French name is Tilleul.

Mastic: aka lentisc, a plant resin from a small shrubby tree (Pistacia lentiscus), the collected raw resin crystals are called “mastic tears” or “chios tears”. Mastic is used as a seasoning in Turkey and Egypt and is known for its medicinal properties. It is used in perfume, varnish, and as a liqueur flavoring.

Monoi: the word means “scented oil”; in modern perfumery, this most always refers to tiare (gardenia) petals macerated in coconut oil. Sometimes called Monoi de Tahiti.

Mousse de Chêne: see Oakmoss.

Muguet: French for Lily of the Valley. The Italian term is “Mughetto”.

Myrrh: a gum resin produced from a bush found in Arabia and Eastern Africa.

Nag Champa: the name of a perfume oil originally made in the Hindu and Buddhist monasteries of India and Nepal and used to perfume incense. Traditionally made from a sandalwood base, to which are added a variety of flower oils, including that from the flower of the Champaca tree.

Neroli: an oil from the blossoms of either the sweet or bitter orange tree. True neroli is created using steam distillation, wheareas “orange blossom” is usually extracted with solvents. The Italian term for neroli is zagara.

Nose: a “nose”, or nez in French, is a person who mixes fragrance components to make perfume; another commonly used term is perfumer, or in French, parfumeur createur. There is a picture of a nose at her perfume organ on the parfumsraffy site.

Oakmoss: derived from a lichen (evernia prunastri) that grows on Oak trees.

Olibanum: see Frankincense.

Opoponax: also known as “sweet myrrh” and “bisabol myrrh”. Has a sweet, balsam-like, lavender-like fragrance when used as incense. King Solomon supposedly regarded opoponax as one of the “noblest” of all incense gums.

Orris: derived from the rhizome of the Iris plant.

Osmanthus: a flowering tree native to China, valued for its delicate fruity apricot aroma. Known as the Tea Olive in the southern United States.

Oud: Sometimes spelled oudh. The Arabic word for wood, in perfumery usually refers to wood from the Agar tree.

Ozonic: used to describe aroma chemicals that are meant to mimic the smell of fresh air. Frequently described as the smell of air right after a thunderstorm.

Pamplemousse: French for grapefruit.

Patchouli: a bushy shrub originally from Malaysia and India. Supposedly the leaves were folded into the cashmere shawls shipped from India to England during Victorian times in order to protect the fabric from moths; eventually, the scent became a badge of authenticity and customers refused to buy unscented shawls. Patchouli has a musty-sweet, spicy aroma.

Perfumer: see Nose.

Petitgrain: oil distilled from leaves and twigs of a citrus tree, usually the bitter orange tree.

Pikaki: a form of jasmine (jasminum sambac) grown in Hawaii and used for making leis. Also known as Arabian jasmine, and widely used to make jasmine tea.

Pivoine: French for peony.

Plumeria: see Frangipani.

Poivre: French for pepper.

Rockrose: see Labdanum.

Rose de Mai: rose absolute made from the centifolia rose.

Sandalwood: an oil extracted from the heartwood of the Sandal tree, originally found in India. One of the oldest known perfumery ingredients, the powdered wood is also used to make incense.

Sillage: the trail of scent left behind by a perfume. Fragrances with minimal sillage are often said to “stay close to the skin”.

Soliflore: a fragrance which focuses on a single flower.

Tagetes: Marigold.

Tiare: a variety of Gardenia, Gardenia tahitensis. It is the national flower of Tahiti. See also: monoi.

Tilleul: French for Linden.

Tolu: also known as Balsam of Tolu. A tree resin from South America, which when dried is said to have a strong aroma with elements of vanilla & cinnamon. Also used in cough syrups. Balsam of Peru is from a closely related species of tree.

Tonka Bean: a thumb-size pod from a plant native to Brazil, said to smell of vanilla with strong hints of cinnamon, cloves and almonds. Cheaper than vanilla pods, and sometimes used as a vanilla substitute outside of the United States (see Coumarin).

Vanilla: vanilla is derived from the seed pod of the vanilla orchid, a flowering vine which is native to Mexico (although most of the vanilla available today comes from Madagascar). The vanilla orchid flower itself is scentless. True vanilla requires extensive hand-processing, and is therefore expensive.

Vetiver: a grass with heavy, fibrous roots, which are used to distill an oil with the scent of moist earth with woody undertones. The grass is also grown in many countries as a means of erosion control. There is a picture of the root system being harvested in the review of Hermès Vetiver Tonka.

Wormwood: diverse family of plants, so named because at one time they were used to prepare worming medicine. The latin name is artemisia, and in perfumery, wormwood and/or artemisia often refers specifically to artemisia absinthium, one of the key ingredients of Absinthe.

Yuzu: a citrus fruit grown in Japan. It looks like a small grapefruit; the flavor has been described as a cross between grapefruit and mandarin orange.

Ylang Ylang: the Malayan term for Cananga odorata, an Asian evergreen tree. Translates to “flower of flowers”.

Zagara: Italian for neroli

So coming to a review of the history of perfume and perfumery

The word perfume used today derives from the Latin "per fume", meaning through smoke. Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Egypt but was developed and further refined by the Romans and the Arabs. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in East Asia, much of its fragrances are incense based.The world's first chemist is considered to be a person named Tapputi, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the second millennium BC in Mesopotamia. Recently, archaeologists have uncovered what is believed to be the world's oldest perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years. The perfumes where discovered in an ancient perfumery factory.

At least 60 distilling stills, mixing bowls, funnels and perfume bottles were found in the 43,000 square foot factory. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, like almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, bergamot, but not flowers. The Iranian doctor and chemist Avicenna introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, (the procedure most commonly used today). He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed herbs, or petals which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.Knowledge of perfumery came to Europe as early as the 14th century due partially to Arabic influences and knowledge. But it was the Hungarians who ultimately introduced the first modern perfume. The first modern perfume, made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution, was made in 1370 at the command of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary and was known throughout Europe as Hungary Water.

The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century, Italian refinements were taken to France by Catherine de Medicis personal perfumer, Rene le Florentin. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulas could be stolen en route. France quickly became the European center of perfume and cosmetic manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. During the Renaissance period, perfumes were used primarily by royalty and the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from the sanitary practices of the day. Partly due to this patronage, the western perfumery industry was created. By the 18th century, aromatic plants were being grown in the Grasse region of France to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, France remains the centre of the European perfume design and trade.

Preserving perfume
Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of:

* Heat
* Light
* Oxygen
* Extraneous organic materials

Proper preservation of perfumes involve keeping them away from sources of heat and storing them where they will not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for up to a year, as long as it is full or nearly so, but as the level goes down, the presence of oxygen in the air that is contained in the bottle will alter the perfume's smell character, eventually distorting them.Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated at a relatively low temperatures between 3-7 degrees Celsius. Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and "open" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which will degrade and alter the quality of a perfume.

So which is the most expensive perfume brand available in the market? Which perfume bottle is adorned with a five-carat diamond? Read on to find out. . . (These perfumes have been ranked by www.perfumejuice.com.

1. Clive Christian's Imperial Majesty: Price $215,000
British designer Clive Christian's creation has recently been voted in the Guiness Book of World Records the most expensive perfume in the world. The 16.9-ounce perfume bottle is stuck into the 18-carat gold collar that is adorned with a five-carat diamond. Only five bottles are made annually, justifying the eye-popping price.

2. Clive Christian No. 1: Price $2,150 (2 oz.)Clive Christian No. 1
This perfume is an extravagant combination of Indian jasmine, mandarin and sandalwood. Its bottle is handmade from lead crystal, while the neck is 24-karat gold-plated sterling silver, set with a solitaire.

The stopper is designed after the original pattern granted by Queen Victoria.

3. Caron's Poivre: $2,000
The peppery unisex fragrance of Caron Poivre is a snip at $2,000 (for 2 oz).Caron's Poivre

This perfume is a concoction of lavender, jasmine, rose, Lily of the valley, carnation, cedar, sandalwood, Tonka and musk.

The maker of this perfume, Caron, is one of the last perfume houses to still have an in-house 'nose' (Monsieur Fraysse) -- also called a master perfumer.

4. Chanel No 5: Price $1,850Chanel No 5
One of the world's most famous perfumes relies heavily on jasmine. It was the first fragrance from Parisian couturier, Gabrielle 'Coco' Chanel.

History has it that Chanel commissioned renowned perfumer Ernest Beaux to make six perfumes. They were labelled No. 1, No. 2, etc. through No. 6. Chanel liked No. 5 the most and that became the chosen formula.

Initially, this perfume was given to some of Chanel's clients for free at her boutique.
Baccarats Les Larmes Sacrees de Thebe
5. Baccarats Les Larmes Sacrees de Thebe: Price $1,700
Baccarat, better known as the maker of high-quality crystal, entered the fragrance business in the late 1990s with three limited-edition fragrances of its own.

Baccarats Les Larmes Sacrees de Thebe combines frankincense and myrrh. The perfume comes in exquisite Baccarat crystal bottles.Annick Goutal's Eau d'Hadrien

6. Annick Goutal's Eau d'Hadrien: Price $1,500
Annick Goutal is a European perfumer, former model and prize-winning pianist. Her Eau d'Hadrien is a fresh, citrus blend of Sicilian lemons, grapefruit and cypress.

7. Hermes' 24 Faubourg: Price $1,500Hermes' 24 Faubourg
This women's perfume, which comes in 1-oz bottles, is made by French fashion house Hermes International.

Hermes started its fragrance line in 1951. Over the past 57 years, the company has created several fragrances for both men and women.

8. Jean Patou's Joy: Price $800Jean Patou's Joy
This is quite a popular fragrance among Hollywood stars. It comes in 1-oz bottles and is a heavy floral scent, based on the most precious rose and jasmine, created by French fashion designer Jean Patou.

Other Patou perfumes are Amour Amour, Adieu Sagesse and Que Sais Je.
But 'Joy' is the most well known one.