The Pyramids... and a deliberation on their construction

The earliest form of pyramid, the step, dates back to the 3rd Dynasty, and consists of several steps. A descending passage from the north leads to the burial chamber. Underground galleries surround the pyramid on all but the south sides. The first, and probably the only step pyramid ever completed, is that of King Netjerykhet Djoser at Saqqara. The Step pyramid is not near as pleasing to the eye as the True pyramid, which could explain the quick abandonment of this type of pyramid.
The true pyramid is a natural development and improvement on the step pyramid. The first true pyramids were introduced in at the beginning of the 4th Dynasty. The structure of a True Pyramid is virtually the same as a step pyramid. Packing blocks are stacked until the dimensions were right, and then finishing blocks (usually limestone) were the last touch. The aesthetics are much more pleasing than the step pyramid, but the construction isn't really that different.
A major problem facing the builders of the Ancient Egyptian Pyramids, was that of getting the Large stone blocks to the height they required. the method shown at left, is the only one proven to have been used. The ramps were built on inclined planes of mud brick and rubble. They then dragged the blocks on sledges to the needed height. As the pyramid grew taller, the ramp had to be extended in length, and its base was widened, else it would collapse. It is likely that for the construction of each pyramid, several ramps were probably used..The arrangement of the ramps used for building is in much dispute. Assuming that the step pyramid was built before the outer structure, and then the packing blocks were laid on top, the ramps could have run from one step to another rather than approaching the pyramid face at right angles.
Some of the pyramids indicate an accurate understanding of Pi, but the mathematical knowledge of the Egyptians did not include the ability to arrive at this by calculation. It is possible that this could have been arrived at "accidentally" through a means such as counting the revolutions of a drum.

The internal construction of most true pyramids consists of a series of buttress walls surrounding a central core. The walls decrease in height from the center outwards. In other words, the core of the true pyramid is essentially a step pyramid. The internal arrangement added stability to the structure. Packing blocks filled the "steps" formed by the faces of the outermost buttress walls and casting blocks (often Limestone) completed the structure of the true pyramid.
Architects and builders used a different form of construction in the pyramids of the 12th and 13th Dynasties. Mainly because of economy, for it was suitable for relatively modest structures in inferior materials. Solid walls of stone ran from the center, and shorter cross walls formed a series of chambers filled with stone blocks, ruble or mud bricks. An outer casing was usually added, and although quite effective in the short term, it did not even come close to the earlier construction methods. Pyramids which were built with this structural design are quite dilapidated and worn.
Before the physical orientation and layout of a new pyramid took place, considerable planning was needed under the direction of a "royal master builder". Ultimately, the responsibility fell on the vizier, who was typically the head of all royal works. The first step in the process was taken by specialists who would draw up plans for the pyramid on papyrus. After the construction began, plans and sketches were drawn on papyri or flat slabs of limestone. Planners even made models of their projects, as evidenced by a limestone model of a substructure found in the Pyramid of Amenemhet III at Dahshur. After the planning stage, each step of pyramid building was initiated with foundation rituals.
Pyramids, unlike many other types of religious structures, required strict orientation to the cardinal points. Pyramid alignment may have been carried out through a number of different means, including some methods we have probably never thought of. The primary theory of how the ancient Egyptians oriented most any building that had to conform to true primary coordinates has been by stellar measurements. This involved building a small, circular wall of perhaps mudbrick that had to be perfectly level at the top. Within the circle, a man would stand and through a straight pole with a forked top called a bay, sight a circumpolar star as it rises. A second man at the perimeter of the small circular wall would then "spot" the wall where the star rose. Using a type of plumb line, or merkhet, he would also spot the mark at the bottom of the wall. When the star set, the process would be repeated. Measuring between the two spots would then provide true north from the center sighting pole.

Recently several other theories have been raised, all of which involve some sort of astronomical measurements. A British scholar named K. Spence believes that the Egyptians used two circumpolar stars (Delta Ursae Majoris and Beta Urae Minoris or Epsilon Usae Majoris and Gamma Urae Minors) Another theory set out by a Slovak Egyptologist, D. Magdolen, believes that the ancient Egyptians oriented their monuments using the sun, by means of wooden stakes and ropes. There is in fact a reference in ancient text referring to "the shadow" and the "stride of Ra".

The sun rises and sets in equal but opposite angles to true north. Using a plumb line, a pole would have been set as vertically as possible. Then, about three hours before noon, its shadow would be measured. This length then becomes the radius of a circle. As the sun rises higher, the shadow shrinks back from the line and then becomes longer in the afternoon. When it reaches the circle again it forms an angle with the morning's line. The bisection of the angle is true north. However, this method would be less accurate then the stellar method, but could be fairly accurate during the solstices.

Creating the Ground Plan

After the primary coordinates were determined, the ground plan would be marked out. Some of the methods used to do so varied from pyramid to pyramid. Here, we examine the means by which the ground plan of the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza was determined.
Initially, a reference line along true north was constructed from the orientation process. The next step would be to create a true square with precise right angles. Within Khufu's pyramid, there is actually a massif of natural rock jutting up that was used as part of the pyramid's core. Therefore, measuring the diagonals of the square to check for accuracy was impossible.
A second method would have employed the use of a sacred or Pythagorean triangle. The triangles seem to be present in the design of the Old Kingdom pyramids, but there is no real conclusive evidence of their use. Basically, this triangle uses three equal units on one side, four on the next, and five on the hypotenuse to give a true right angle. At Khufu's pyramid a series of holes along the orientation line are dug at seven cubit (3.675 meters or about 12 ft) intervals, so the triangle probably used these positions in the measurement. In other words, the triangle would have been measured as 21 cubits by 28 cubits with a 35 cubit hypotenuse. This would have resulted in a much longer measurement for the perpendicular line then with the use of a set square. If the unites used were any greater, the measurement would have been interrupted by the rock outcrop.
A third method possibly available to the early Egyptians would have been through the use of intersecting arcs. In this method, two circles would have been sketched by rotating a cord around two points on the orientation line. The intersection of the two circles would then provide a right angle. Some doubt this method was used because the elasticity of the string or rope used to sketch the circles would lead to inaccuracies. However, at Khufu's pyramid, there are a number of post holes dug that might have been used to draw such circles, so the method cannot be ruled out. Furthermore, the Egyptian may have used a rod or other device rather than rope or string to draw the circle, eliminating elasticity.

The Platform

An orientation reference line was set up in a larger square by measuring off the established square ground plan. This was done by digging post holes at measured distances from the inner square in the bedrock and inserting small posts through which a rope or string ran. These holes were dug at about 10 cubit intervals. This outer reference line was needed because the original orientation lines would be erased by building work. Various segments of the reference line could be removed so that building material could be moved into place. Then measurements were taken from the guide line as the material for the platform were put in place so that the the platform was in accord with the initial floor plan.
Not only was the platform required to be laid in a perfect square, but it was also required to be very level. In Khufu's pyramid, the platform is level to within about 2.1 cm (one inch). There were several means that this too could be accomplished. Traditional though, apparently originally conceived by Edwards, suggests the use of water to level the platform. He thought that the ancient Egyptians might have built a mud enclosure around the platform that was then filled with water. A grid of trenches would have been cut at a uniform depth below the water. However, modern Egyptologists believe this method would have been cumbersome at best. The platform would have had to have been chiseled beneath the water. Perhaps a more accepted theory involves channels being cut to form a grid within the platform, which was then filled with water. At the top of the water's surface, the level would be marked along the sides of the channels, and then the platform cut accordingly.
Our thinking on pyramids has evolved considerably over the years. Many of us who are a bit older were taught that the pyramids were built using Jewish slave labor, which is a fabrication of immense proportions. Most of the pyramids were built long before the Jews made their appearance historically and currently, many if not most scholars believe they were not built using slave labor at all (or perhaps a nominal number of slaves).

Otherwise, we can also dismiss offhand alternative theories related to aliens or some lost culture being responsible for pyramid building. There is just far too much evidence, including tools, drawings, evolutionary changes, and even worker villages that rule these farfetched ideas obsolete.
However, some mysteries remain, even in some of the best well known Pyramids. The most famous of them all, the Great Pyramid of Khufu, continues, year after year, to give up a few more secrets, and there doubtless remains much to learn from these Egyptian treasures. There may even be one or more pyramids yet to be discovered.

(c)Tour Egypt & The data from the Museum of Antiquities,Cairo

Mobile phones.. Since when have we been seeing these things around?

This morning I stumbled upon a very cool article on PCWorld.com called "In Pictures: A History of Cell Phones."
(Ref. Al Sacco in Soapbox)
What follows are few of the most notable events in the evolution of the cell phone, according to the article.

1973

* Motorola touts a prototype of the world's first mobile cellular phone, the Motorola DynaTAC 8000X. It's more than a foot long, weighs nearly 2 pounds and sells for $4,000. However, it wasn't commercially available until a decade later.

1982

* Finnish handset maker Nokia introduces its first mobile phone, the Nokia Mobira Senator. The device looks very much like a portable radio and it weighs a whopping 21 pounds. Yikes.


1993

* BellSouth/IBM unveil the world's first mobile phone with PDA features, including phone and pager functionality, calculator and calendar applications, as well as fax and e-mail capability. The BellSouth/IBM Simon Personal Communicator weighs 21 ounces and sells for $900.

1996

* Motorola debuts its StarTAC mobile phone, merging fashion and functionality into the cell phone. It weighs 3.1 ounces--light by even today's standards--and it is a clam shell device.

2000

* Kyocera introduces its QCP6035 mobile phone, the very first widely available Palm OS-based phone. It costs between $400 and $500 but only included 8MB of memory.

2001

* Before Palm acquired Handspring, the company released its Handspring Treo 180 cellular phone, which came in two versions. The Treo 180 was available with a QWERTY keyboard as well as in a separate version with text input method called Graffiti.

2002

* The Danger Hiptop, which later became known as the T-Mobile Sidekick, hits the mobile space. It is one of the first mobile devices to include a quality Web browser, reliable e-mail access and instant messaging, as well a unique swiveling form factor. (PCWorld.com later went on to name the device its 2003 product of the year.)
* The BlackBerry 5810 hits the market in 2002, and though it's not the first BlackBerry, it's the first such device from Research In Motion (RIM) to include voice functionality--though a headset is required because it doesn't have an external microphone or speaker.
* Sanyo and Sprint make the Sprint SCP-5300 PCS available, and both companies claim it's the first mobile phone in the United States to include a digital camera. Image quality is, however, less than impressive.

2004

* Motorola announces its RAZR v3 cell phone and starts a trend toward ultra-thin, stylish phones that's still influencing mobile device manufacturers today. The RAZR v3 is a "cool" device that everyone, from high schoolers to businessmen, wants. It's still one of the most popular mobile phones, and its one of the few handsets offered by the majority of major cellular carriers.

2006

* RIM, known for its high-end business phones and reliable "push" e-mail technology, makes its first foray into the consumer space with the BlackBerry Pearl 8100. The device is the first from RIM to include a digital camera and media player and it's also the smallest, thinnest BlackBerry--currently, the company's 8800 series of devices are the thinnest it offers. (Read CIO.com's review for more on the BlackBerry Pearl.)

2007

* Apple releases the iPhone, a beautifully designed device that includes an innovative--and much hyped up--touch screen navigation interface, which doesn't require the use of a stylus. The device is available exclusively through AT&T in the United States, and it comes in a 4GB version for $499 and an 8GB version for $599.

Digital wireless and cellular roots go back to the 1940s when commercial mobile telephony began. Compared with the furious pace of development today, it may seem odd that mobile wireless hasn't progressed further in the last 60 years. Where's my real time video watch phone? There were many reasons for this delay but the most important ones were technology, cautiousness, and federal regulation.

First generation analog cellular systems begin:-

BatelcoThe Bahrain Telephone Company (Batelco external link) in May, 1978 began operating a commercial cellular telephone system. It probably marks the first time in the world that individuals started using what we think of as traditional, mobile cellular radio. The two cell system had 250 subscribers, 20 channels in the 400Mhz band to operate on, and used all Matsushita equipment. (Panasonic is the name of Matsushita in the United States.) [Gibson]Cable and Wireless, now Global Crossing, installed the equipment.

In July, 1978 Advanced Mobile Phone Service or AMPS started operating in North America. In AT&T labs in Newark, New Jersey, and most importantly in a trial around Chicago, Illinois Bell and AT&T jointly rolled out analog based cellular telephone service. Ten cells covering 21,000 square miles made up the Chicago system. This first equipment test began using 90 Bell System employees. After six months, on December 20th, 1978, a market trial began with paying customers who leased the car mounted telephones. This was called the service test. The system used the newly allocated 800 MHz band. Although the Bell System bought an additional 1,000 mobile phones from Oki for the lease phase, it did place orders from Motorola and E.F. Johnson for the remainder of the 2100 radios needed. [Business Week2] This early network, using large scale integrated circuits throughout, a dedicated computer and switching system, custom made mobile telephones and antennas, proved a large cellular system could work.

The Rise of GSM

Europeans saw things differently. No new telephone system could accommodate their existing services on so many frequencies. They decided instead to start a new technology in a new radio band. Cellular structured but fully digital, the new service would incorporate the best thinking of the time. They patterned their new wireless standard after landline requirements for ISDN, hoping to make a wireless counterpart to it. The new service was called GSM.
GSM first stood for Groupe Speciale Mobile, after the study group that created the standard. It's now known as Global System for Mobile Communications, although the "C" isn't included in the abbreviation. In 1982 twenty-six European national phone companies began developing GSM. This Conference of European Postal and Telecommunications Administrations or CEPT, planned a uniform, European wide cellular system around 900 MHz. A rare triumph of European unity, GSM achievements became "one of the most convincing demonstrations of what co-operation throughout European industry can achieve on the global market." Planning began in earnest and continued for several years.

In the mid-1980s commercial mobile telephony took to the air. The North American terrestrial system or NATS was introduced by Airfone in 1984, the company soon bought out by GTE. The aeronautical public correspondence or APC service breaks down into two divisions. The first is the ground or terrestial based system (TAPC). That's where aircraft placed telephone calls go directly to a ground station. The satellite-based division, which came much later, places calls to a satellite which then relays the transmission to a ground station. AT&T soon established their own TAPC network after GTE..
PCS or Personal Communication Services were all digital, using TDMA routines and also code division multiple access or CDMA. These were IS-136 and IS-95, respectively. The most notable offering was European GSM, brought to America at a higher frequency and sometimes dubbed PCS1900. It uses TDMA. The evolution of IS-54, IS-136, came into being shortly after these new spectrum blocks were opened up. Today some carriers use both 900 MHz and 1900 MHz spectrum in a single area, putting a mobile call on whatever band is best at the time.

As we look toward the future the demand for new mobile wireless services seems unlimited, especially with the mobile internet upon us. Existing voice oriented systems will continue and be updated. New systems such as 3G will arrive in America once additional spectrum is cleared for their use. These new services will combine data and voice, treating transmission in a different way. Packet switching is a fundamental, elemental change between how wireless was delivered in the past and how it will be presented in the future.

The Origins & Future of the Internet

he Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is at once a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information dissemination, and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location.

The Internet represents one of the most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and development of information infrastructure. Beginning with the early research in packet switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in evolving and deploying this exciting new technology.
A brief history of the development of the Internet is shown below:

1969. A group of DoD researchers linked four computers at UCLA, SRI, University of Utah and the UCSB. They created a network to communicate with one another about government projects. The network was part of the DoD's Advanced Research Project Agency, and was dubbed ARPAnet;

· 1972. More than 50 universities and military agencies were linked together on the network. For a short period of time it was a top secret defence project, ensuring that computers could talk to each other in the event of a nuclear attack. The communication system between the sites was called email and was invented by Ray Tomlinson of Bolt, Berank and Newman;

· 1973. The links were extended to Norway and England;

· 1974. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was published and the military and educational links diverged. Organisations like NASA began to experiment with computer networks, and the networks began to interconnect and the name Internet was coined;

· 1976. The Queen sends an email from RSRE Malvern.

· 1983. TCP/IP become the protocol standard for ARPAnet. Scott Fahlman invents the smiley to convey emotions in email;

· 1984. In the US, the NSF built high speed, long distance lines that connected supercomputer sites across the USA. These eventually replaced the original ARPAnet. In time, NSFnet was joined by other networks at dozens of universities, research laboratories and high-tech companies. The system for assigning names to computers on the network was introduced - DNS. JANet was launched to connect British Universities;

· 1986. The NSF established its own faster network NSFnet and Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) was introduced making on-line interactive discussion a reality. Backbone speed was 56 Kbps;

· 1987. 1000th RFC and 10,000th host;

· 1988. Robert Tappan Morris releases the first Internet Worm and CERT was set up in response to this. Backbone speed upgraded to 1.544Mbps. IRC developed;

· 1989. 100,000th host. Cuckoo's Egg released by Cliff Stoll telling true story of East German cracker accessing US installations;

· 1990. ARPAnet ceased to exist and the Internet effectively took its role;

· 1991. Gopher, a software program for retrieving information from servers on the Internet was made available by the University o f Minnesota. The US Government announced that it no longer intended to restrict activity on the Internet to research. This policy shift was sufficient for 12 companies to co-operate and produce CIX. Phil Zimmerman released PGP. Backbone speed upgraded to 44.736 Mbps;

· 1992. The World Wide Web became a possibility after CERN, in Switzerland, released hypertext. 1,000,000th Host. The author gets his first dialup email account with Demon Internet (November 1992);

· 1993. Mosaic, a software program to browse Web sites written by Marc Andreesen, was released followed by Netscape;

· 1994. Shopping Malls arrive on the Internet. The UK Treasury goes on line and the first cyberbank opens. The first banner adverts appeared for Zima (a drink) and AT&T;

· 1995. Traditional dialup services (AOL, CompuServe etc) start to provide dialup services. The Vatican goes on line. A number of Internet companies go public. Netscape leads the field with the largest ever IPO on NASDAQ. DEC launches AltaVista, which claims to index every HTML page there is. Jeff Bezos launches Amazon.com. eBay is launched;

· 1996. 9,272 organizations find themselves unlisted after the InterNIC drops their name service as a result of not having paid their domain name fee. Various ISPs suffer extended service outages, bringing into question whether they will be able to handle the growing number of users. AOL (19 hours), Netcom (13 hours), AT&T WorldNet (28 hours - email only). China requires users of the Internet to register with the Police. Saudi Arabia restricts use to Universities and Hospitals. Domain name tv.com sold to CNET for US$15,000. Backbone speed upgraded to 622 Mbps;

· 1997. 2000th RFC. 16 Million hosts. 1,000,000th Domain name registered (March 6th for Bonny View Cottage Furniture Company);

· 1998. 3,000,000th Domain name registered. US Postal authorities allow purchase of postage stamps on line for downloading and printing. Gigabit Ethernet standard ratified. Google is launched;

· 1999. First full service bank opens on the Internet (First Internet Bank of Indiana). First forged web page, looking like Bloomberg, raises the shares of a small company by 31% (7th April). Melissa strikes. 5,000,000th Domain name registered. First Cyberwar starts between Serbia and Kosovo. Shawn Fanning Launches Napster - record labels are furious;

· 2000. 10,000,000th Domain name registered. French Courts require that 'hate' memorabilia for sale on Yahoo's auction site must be removed. Gnutella is launched. ICANN selects new top level domains. Backbone is upgraded to IPv6;

· 2001. Forwarding email becomes illegal in Australia (Digital Agenda Act). Napster forced to suspend service after legal action. Taliban bans the Internet in Afghanistan. Nimda released on the Internet;

· 2002. Distributed denial of Service attack hits 13 DNS root servers, causing national security concerns;

· 2003. The first official Swiss online election takes place in Anières (7 Jan), SQL Slammer (goes round the world in 10 minutes and takes out 3 of the 13 DNS Servers). Followed by SoBig.F (19 Aug) and Blaster (11 Aug);

· 2004. Lycos Europe releases a screen saver to help fight spam by keeping spam servers busy with requests (1 Dec). The service is discontinued within a few days after backbone providers block access to the download site and the service causes some servers to crash.

.Web 2.0
Beginning in 2002, new ideas for sharing and exchanging content ad hoc, such as Weblogs and RSS, rapidly gained acceptance on the Web. This new model for information exchange, primarily featuring DIY user-edited and generated websites, was coined Web 2.0.

The Web 2.0 boom saw many new service-oriented startups catering to a new, democratized Web. Some believe it will be followed by the full realization of a Semantic Web.
Predictably, as the World Wide Web became easier to query, attained a higher degree of usability, and shed its esoteric reputation, it gained a sense of organization and unsophistication which opened the floodgates and ushered in a rapid period of popularization. New sites such as Wikipedia and its sister projects proved revolutionary in executing the User edited content concept. In 2005, 3 ex-PayPal employees formed a video viewing website called YouTube. Only a year later, YouTube was proven the most quickly popularized website in history, and even started a new concept of user-submitted content in major events, as in the CNN-YouTube Presidential Debates.

The popularity of YouTube and similar services, combined with the increasing availability and affordability of high-speed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video-content hosting and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos to be embedded on third party websites without payment or permission.

This combination of more user-created or edited content, and easy means of sharing content, such as via RSS widgets and video embedding, has led to many sites with a typical "Web 2.0" feel. They have articles with embedded video, user-submitted comments below the article, and RSS boxes to the side, listing some of the latest articles from other sites.

Continued extension of the World Wide Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined Intelligent Device Management. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the expanded computing power of their devices to enhance their usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity, manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices they have sold and shipped to their customers, and customers are able to interact with the manufacturer (and other providers) to access new content.
Lending credence to the idea of the ubiquity of the web, Web 2.0 has found a place in the global English lexicon. On June 10, 2009 the Global Language Monitor declared it to be the one-millionth English word.

Say Cheese!

Cheese first appeared somewhere around 7,000 B.C. in the Neolithic period, which is at about the same time humans began to breed livestock. Legend has it that a desert nomad was transporting milk in a pouch made from a sheep’s stomach. Eventually, the rennet in the lining of the pouch, combined with the heat of the sun, caused the milk to separate into curd and whey. Curious, and no doubt hungry, the nomad drank the whey and tasted the curd. We can safely guess that he enjoyed the experience! This method of transforming milk was kept a closely-guarded secret for many years. In ancient Egypt, for example, only priests were privileged with this secret.

The word “fromage”, French for cheese, comes from the Latin “forma”. Originally, curdled milk was placed in perforated moulds to allow the whey to drain away. The Latin word for these containers was “forma”. Around the13th Century, forma became formage and finally in the 15th Century formage became fromage. The word cheese on the other hand comes from the Latin caseus, which translated into cese in Old English and eventually became cheese!

At first, the Romans and the Greeks considered cheese a luxury food, accessible only to the wealthy. Eventually though, it became a staple food that was used in both sweet and salty dishes. During the Roman Empire, cheese-making had advanced to the point where over thirteen varieties of cheeses were produced. It was during that time in fact that, in an effort to perfect the curd-draining process, the Romans invented the cheese press, a technique that they exported as far as Great Britain.

It was during the Middle-Ages that European monks invented ripening and ageing techniques for cheese. The monks produced milder-tasting cheeses. In the Jura and the Alps, communities of mountain farmers would get together in dairy associations, enabling them to produce first-rate, quality cheeses. In the 7th Century, many cheeses came to be known by the region in which they were produced. Names such as le Poitou, Munster, Gorgonzola and Maroilles are now commonplace.

In 1217, Blanche de Navarre sent two hundred Brie cheeses to Philippe Auguste so that he may offer them to the women he was courting…even back then, the nutritional virtues of cheese were well-recognized!

In the 13th Century, in Déservilliers, France, the first known cheese cooperative was created by women dairy farmers looking to increase their revenues from milk production.

In the 16th Century, Queen Elizabeth I was instrumental in officially promoting Cheshire cheese, a product that had being produced for three centuries.

The soft cheese industry got started around 1850 by Charles Gervais after his visit with a farmer, Dame Héroult, who made fresh, unripened cheese. The man behind the “petits suisses”, Gervais perfected a technique that involved draining the curds by layers. Pressure was created by piling the canvas bags containing the curds one on top of the other.

In the 19th Century, a chemist and biologist named Louis Pasteur proved that heating milk at sufficiently high temperatures for a specific amount of time could destroy pathogenic bacteria. The process came to be known as pasteurization.

The Vache qui rit was created in 1921 and the Bleu de Bresse appeared around 1950. The Caprice des Dieux quickly followed in 1956.

In 1953, the Stresa Convention, ratified by France, Italy, Swiss, Austria, Scandinavia and Holland screened certain national sorts of cheese (Parmesan, Roquefort, Gorgonzola) from conterfeiting.

In the 20th Century, new industrially-made cheeses started to appear on the European market. The first television ad for cheese (le Boursin) aired in France, in 1968.

The earlier records in Vedic hymms in India (6000 to 4000 BC), Egyptian records (4000 BC) and Babylonian records (2000 BC) clearly show references to milk, butter and cheese.

However it is believed that with the advance of civilizations, the art of cheesemaking spread via the Mediterranean basin to the rest of the world.

Witten history is scarce until the period of the Greek and Roman empires, when various authors left written evidence.

Greek records go back to about 1550 BC and Roman records to 750 BC indicating that milk and cheese were important components of the diet of these peoples.

By the beginning of the Christian era, milk and cheese were used as food throughout Europe.

Milking operations and the curding of milk are depicted in an early Sumerian frieze from El-Ubaid. A food material found in the tomb of Hories Aha (3000 BC) has been proven to be cheese.
A scene on the walls of a Ramesid tomb (100 BC) depicts goats being led to pasture and also skin bags suspend from poles. Such bags were traditionally used to ferment milk by nomadic tribes.

During fermentation, drainage of whey though cloth or perforated bowls allowed the collection of curds which when salted became cheese.

There was indications that that the cheese was made n England well before the arrival of the Romans.

Cheese was included in the offering of ancient Greeks to the gods at Mount Olympus, and cheesemaking was clearly well established craft at the time of Homer’s writing.

Homer in 1184 BC referred to cheese made in caves by the “Cyclops” Polyphemus from milk of sheep and goats.

Later, Herodotus, 484 to 408 BC, referred to the “Scythian” cheese was made from mares’ milk, while Aristotle (384 to 322 BC) noted that “Phrygian” cheese was made from the milk of mares and asses.

By the fourteen century cheesemaking was a considerably industry in Switzerland, but export was forbidden. At this time, a cheese market was operating in Gouda, Holland. It is reported that the first cooperative cheese factory was started at Voralberg in the Balkans in about 1380.

By 1500m it is recorded that the expansion of cheesemaking in England, France, Germany and Holland resulted in Italy losing its dominant position as a cheesemaker.

Who invented Swiss cheese?

Swiss cheese was mentioned by the first century Roman historian Pliny the Elder, who called it Caseus Helveticus - the "cheese of the Helvetians", one of the tribes living in Switzerland at the time.

From cottage cheese to hard cheese
For centuries the standard type was cottage cheese, made by souring milk, and which did not keep. The technique of using rennet - a substance taken from the stomach lining of calves - to make hard cheese first appeared in Switzerland around the 15th century. Since such cheese could be stored for lengthy periods it is not surprising that it soon became part of the basic fare of travellers.

The monks who looked after the hospices at the top of some of the major passes, snowed in for part of the year, kept large stocks of it for their guests. And they needed to be large: one guest who passed through the hostel on the Great St Bernard pass was Napoleon, who - with the help of his 40,000 troops - got through a tonne and a half of the monks' cheese in May 1800. (The monks had to wait 50 years before they saw any money at all for it, and it was only in 1984 that the then French President, François Mitterrand, made a token payment of the rest.)

Cheese Variety Year(AD)
-------------- --------
Gorgonzola 879
Roquefort 1070
Grana 1200
Cheddar 1500
Parmesan 1579
Gouda 1697
Gloucester 1697
Stilton 1785
Camembert 1791

Here are some of the more popular types of cheese:

Swiss Cheese originally from Switzerland. This famous cheese has holes all over which are known as ‘eyes’. The larger the eyes are, the more pronounced its flavour will be. Longer aging or higher temperatures will cause the bacteria and enzymes to produce a sharper flavour. One of the down sides to Swiss cheese is that because of the holes it doesn't slice well, and will at times fall apart. Swiss cheese is known for its distinct look and its nutty, bitter yet sweet flavour.

Feta cheese is Greek cheese. It is made with a combination of goat and sheep milk. This cheese has to be matured for several months. Feta cheese is white and usually shaped into squares. It can be soft to semi-firm cheese. The flavour of feta can be salty and tangy or also range from mild to sharp depending on its aging process. The processed cheese crumbles easily. It can be used as a table cheese, as well as in salads, pastries and also for baking purposes.

Blue cheese is a combination of cow, sheep and goat milk. It is usually blue or blue- green, with veins or spotty which is due to mold. It is usually aged in a temperature controlled environment has a very distinctive aroma. The flavour of blue cheese is salty and very sharp. Because of its strong flavour and smell, the taste of blue cheese is one that has to be acquired.

Cheddar cheese originated in the English village of Cheddar. It is a relatively firm, light yellow to off-white, and at times a sharp tasting cheese. The taste of cheddar cheese can be mild or sharp. The sharper the cheddar, the more pungent and complex it will taste.

Cream cheese is a type of white cheese. It is not naturally aged and is meant to be eaten fresh, which is why it differs from other soft cheeses. Cream cheese is also very difficult to manufacture. However, small adjustments in the timing of the development process can result in a distinction in flavour and texture. It is sweet, soft, creamy and mild to taste. Because the fat content of cream cheese is higher than other cheeses, stabilizers are added to lengthen its shelf life. Cream cheese is used in different kinds of savoury snacks such as bread, bagels and crackers. It can also be used in cheesecakes and salads.

Other cheeses include soft cheeses such as cottage cheese, ricotta, brie, roquefort and mozzarella, cheeses. These cheeses usually go well with fruits or meats. They can be used as breakfast cheeses for instance, in an omelette or even as pasta fillings. They are typically lightly flavoured and extremely high in moisture.

Semi-hard cheeses have a more bold flavour than semi-soft cheeses and goes wonderfully with fruits and crackers. Cheeses in this class include provolone and gouda to name a couple. Cheeses in this category are smoked. Smoked gouda is especially common. Milder gouda melts well and may be used in casseroles or as stuffing for certain kind of meats.

Hard cheeses include parmesan, romano and gruyere. Parmesan and romano are known as grated powder which is used to top spaghetti, but these cheeses are also used as side dishes for fruit, wine, nuts and other appetizers.

The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is closely derived. The earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means "to ferment, become sour".

More recently, cheese comes from chese (in Middle English) and cīese or cēse (in Old English). Similar words are shared by other West Germanic languages — West Frisian tsiis, Dutch kaas, German Käse, Old High German chāsi — all from the reconstructed West-Germanic form *kasjus, which in turn is an early borrowing from Latin.

When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries' supplies, a new word started to be used: formaticum, from caseus formatus, or "molded cheese" (as in "formed", not "moldy"). It is from this word that the French fromage, Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo is derived from. Cheese itself is occasionally employed in a sense that means "molded" or "formed". Head cheese uses the word in this sense.

The main factor in the categorization of these cheese is their age. Fresh cheeses without additional preservatives can spoil in a matter of days.

For these simplest cheeses, milk is curdled and drained, with little other processing. Examples include cottage cheese, Romanian Caş, Neufchâtel (the model for American-style cream cheese), and fresh goat's milk chèvre. Such cheeses are soft and spreadable, with a mild taste.

Whey cheeses are fresh cheeses made from the whey discarded while producing other cheeses. Provençal Brousse, Corsican Brocciu, Italian Ricotta, Romanian Urda, Greek Mizithra, and Norwegian Geitost are examples. Brocciu is mostly eaten fresh, and is as such a major ingredient in Corsican cuisine, but it can be aged too.

Traditional pasta filata cheeses such as Mozzarella also fall into the fresh cheese category. Fresh curds are stretched and kneaded in hot water to form a ball of Mozzarella, which in southern Italy is usually eaten within a few hours of being made. Stored in brine, it can be shipped, and is known worldwide for its use on pizzas. Other firm fresh cheeses include paneer and queso fresco.

Classed by texture

Categorizing cheeses by firmness is a common but inexact practice. The lines between "soft", "semi-soft", "semi-hard", and "hard" are arbitrary, and many types of cheese are made in softer or firmer variations. The factor that controls cheese hardness is moisture content, which depends on the pressure with which it is packed into molds, and aging time.

Semi-soft cheeses and the sub-group, Monastery cheeses have a high moisture content and tend to be bland in flavor. Some well-known varieties include Havarti, Munster and Port Salut.

Cheeses that range in texture from semi-soft to firm include Swiss-style cheeses like Emmental and Gruyère. The same bacteria that give such cheeses their eyes also contribute to their aromatic and sharp flavors. Other semi-soft to firm cheeses include Gouda, Edam, Jarlsberg and Cantal. Cheeses of this type are ideal for melting and are used on toast for quick snacks.

Harder cheeses have a lower moisture content than softer cheeses. They are generally packed into molds under more pressure and aged for a longer time. Cheeses that are semi-hard to hard include the familiar Cheddar, originating in the village of Cheddar in England but now used as a generic term for this style of cheese, of which varieties are imitated worldwide and are marketed by strength or the length of time they have been aged. Cheddar is one of a family of semi-hard or hard cheeses (including Cheshire and Gloucester) whose curd is cut, gently heated, piled, and stirred before being pressed into forms. Colby and Monterey Jack are similar but milder cheeses; their curd is rinsed before it is pressed, washing away some acidity and calcium. A similar curd-washing takes place when making the Dutch cheeses Edam and Gouda.

Hard cheeses — "grating cheeses" such as Parmesan and Pecorino Romano—are quite firmly packed into large forms and aged for months or years.
St. Pat Cow's Milk Cheese

Classed by content

Some cheeses are categorized by the source of the milk used to produce them or by the added fat content of the milk from which they are produced. While most of the world's commercially available cheese is made from cows' milk, many parts of the world also produce cheese from goats and sheep, well-known examples being Roquefort, produced in France, and Pecorino Romano, produced in Italy, from ewe's milk. One farm in Sweden also produces cheese from moose's milk. Sometimes cheeses of a similar style may be available made from milk of different sources - Feta style cheeses, for example, are made from goats' milk in Greece and from sheep and cows' milk elsewhere.

Double cream cheeses are soft cheeses of cows' milk enriched with cream so that their fat content is 60% or, in the case of triple creams, 75%.
Soft-ripened and blue-vein

There are three main categories of cheese in which the presence of mold is a significant feature: soft ripened cheeses, washed rind cheeses and blue cheeses.
Vacherin du Haut-Doubs cheese, a French cheese with a white Penicillium mold rind.

Soft-ripened cheeses begin firm and rather chalky in texture, but are aged from the exterior inwards by exposing them to mold. The mold may be a velvety bloom of Penicillium candida or P. camemberti that forms a flexible white crust and contributes to the smooth, runny, or gooey textures and more intense flavors of these aged cheeses. Brie and Camembert, the most famous of these cheeses, are made by allowing white mold to grow on the outside of a soft cheese for a few days or weeks. Goats' milk cheeses are often treated in a similar manner, sometimes with white molds (Chèvre-Boîte) and sometimes with blue.

Washed-rind cheeses are soft in character and ripen inwards like those with white molds; however, they are treated differently. Washed rind cheeses are periodically cured in a solution of saltwater brine and other mold-bearing agents that may include beer, wine, brandy, and spices, making their surfaces amenable to a class of bacteria Brevibacterium linens (the reddish-orange "smear bacteria") that impart pungent odors and distinctive flavors. Washed-rind cheeses can be soft (Limburger), semi-hard (Munster), or hard (Appenzeller). The same bacteria can also have some impact on cheeses that are simply ripened in humid conditions, like Camembert.
Stilton from England.

So-called blue cheese is created by inoculating a cheese with Penicillium roqueforti or Penicillium glaucum. This is done while the cheese is still in the form of loosely pressed curds, and may be further enhanced by piercing a ripening block of cheese with skewers in an atmosphere in which the mold is prevalent. The mold grows within the cheese as it ages. These cheeses have distinct blue veins, which gives them their name and, often, assertive flavors. The molds range from pale green to dark blue, and may be accompanied by white and crusty brown molds. Their texture can be soft or firm. Some of the most renowned cheeses are of this type, each with its own distinctive color, flavor, texture and smell. They include Roquefort, Gorgonzola, and Stilton.

Processed cheese is made from traditional cheese and emulsifying salts, often with the addition of milk, more salt, preservatives, and food coloring. It is inexpensive, consistent, and melts smoothly. It is sold packaged and either pre-sliced or unsliced, in a number of varieties. It is also available in aerosol cans in some countries.

Bury me in my LEATHER jacket, jeans and motor cycle boots!

Leather has played an important role in the development of civilisation. From prehistoric times man has used the skins of animals to satisfy his basic needs. He has used hides to make clothing, shelter, carpets and even decorative attire. To the Egyptian lady, a fur piece was highly prized as her jewellery. From leather, man made footwear, belts, clothing, containers for liquids, boats and even armour. The principle protective armour of the Roman soldier was a heavy leather shirt.

In recorded history, pieces of leather dating from 1300 B.C. have been found in Egypt. Primitive societies in Europe, Asia and North America all developed the technique of turning skins into leather goods independently of one another. The Greeks were using leather garments in the age of the Homeric heroes ( about 1200 B.C. ), and the use of leather later spread throughout the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, the Chinese knew the art of making leather . The Indians of North America also had developed great skills in leather work before the coming of the white man.

At some time, by accident or by trial and error, man discovered methods of preserving and softening leather treating animal skins with such things as smoke, grease and bark extracts. The art of tanning leather using the bark of trees probably originated among the Hebrews. In primitive societies, the art was a closely guarded secret passed down from father to son. As civilisation developed in Europe, tanners and leather workers united in the trade guilds of the Middle Ages, as did the craftsmen in other fields. Royal charters or licences were issued permitting people to practice leather tanning. In the nineteenth century, vegetable tanning, i.e., tanning using the extracts from the bark of certain kinds of trees, was supplemented by chrome tanning. This process uses chemicals and today accounts for about eighty to ninety percent of all tanning done except for the leather used in the soles of shoes and tooling leathers.

How leather is sold

The most economical way to buy leather is to purchase it directly from the tannery. Leather is usually priced by the square foot and sold as a complete hide. The exact size, to the nearest 1/4 sq.ft., is measured on government approved measuring devices at the tannery. When you purchase leather this way, you are assured of getting value for money.

Leather comes from tanneries in various shapes and sizes depending on its intended use and the animal which it came from. One thing to always remember about leather - it is an animal’s skin that has been processed into finished leather, not a synthetic material. Because of this, the exact size and shape of the finished leather is dictated somewhat by the size and shape of the animal hide that the tannery received to process.

For ease of handling during tanning, large animal hides are usually cut into smaller sections ( sides, shoulders, bellies, etc. ) at the tannery. Skins of smaller animals such as calf, goat, pig and reptiles are tanned and sold in their original shape.

Although leather is sometimes cut into various shapes for the convenience of the customer, the price is always higher because of the additional costs for labour and waste.

Buying leather is much easier if you understand what the different types of leather are used for, how different leathers are tanned and how large skins are cut and sold. Here are a few of the basic terms used in leather craft with their explanations.

Leathercraft terms

Back. A side with the belly cut off, usually 15 - 18 sq.ft.

Belly. The lower part of a side, usually 4 - 8 sq.ft.

Kip. The skin of a large calf, usually 9 - 17 sq.ft.

Split. This refers to the undersection of a piece of leather that has been split into two or more thicknesses. Splits are usually embossed with a design or sueded.

Suede. Leather that has been sanded to produce a nap.

Grain. The epidermis or outer layer of animal skins.

Full Grain. Leather that is just as it was when taken off of the animal. Only the hair has been removed and the grain or epidermis is left on.

NOTE: ONLY FULL GRAIN, VEGETABLE TANNED LEATHER will absorb water and tool correctly. All leather carving and tooling must be done on full grain leather.

Top Grain. Top grain leather has often been sanded to remove scars and then sprayed or pasted to "cover up" the work. Top Grain IS NOT the same as "Full Grain" leather.

To make leather a uniform thickness, first the hides are run through a splitting machine. Since animal hides are not of uniform thickness, and since they are wet when they are put through the splitting machine, thethickness of the leather will not remain the same throughout the hide. There will always be slight variations and that is why leathers are usually shown with a range of thickness - such as 2 - 2.4mm., 3.2 - 3.6mm., etc.

Forms of leather

Several tanning processes transform hides and skins into leather:

* Vegetable-tanned leather is tanned using tannin and other ingredients found in vegetable matter, tree bark, and other such sources. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and the color of the skin. It is the only form of leather suitable for use in leather carving or stamping. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water; it tends to discolor, and if left to soak and then dry it will shrink and become less supple and harder. In hot water, it will shrink drastically and partly gelatinize, becoming rigid and eventually brittle. Boiled leather is an example of this where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, or in boiled wax or similar substances. Historically, it was occasionally used as armor after hardening, and it has also been used for book binding.
* Chrome-tanned leather, invented in 1858, is tanned using chromium sulfate and other salts of chromium. It is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather, and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. It is also known as wet-blue for its color derived from the chromium. More esoteric colors are possible using chrome tanning.
* Aldehyde-tanned leather is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine compounds. This is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather due to its pale cream or white color. It is the main type of "chrome-free" leather, often seen in automobiles and shoes for infants.
o Formaldehyde tanning (being phased out due to its danger to workers and the sensitivity of many people to formaldehyde) is another method of aldehyde tanning. Brain-tanned leathers fall into this category and are exceptionally water absorbent.
+ Brain tanned leathers are made by a labor-intensive process which uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains. They are known for their exceptional softness and their ability to be washed.
o Chamois leather also falls into the category of aldehyde tanning and like brain tanning produces a highly water absorbent leather. Chamois leather is made by using oils (traditionally cod oil) that oxidize easily to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather to make the fabric the color it is.
* Synthetic-tanned leather is tanned using aromatic polymers such as the Novolac or Neradol types (syntans, contaction for synthetic tannins). This leather is white in color and was invented when vegetable tannins were in short supply during the Second World War. Melamine and other amino-functional resins fall into this category as well and they provide the filling that modern leathers often require. Urea-formaldehyde resins were also used in this tanning method until dissatisfaction about the formation of free formaldehyde was realized.
* Alum-tawed leather is transformed using aluminium salts mixed with a variety of binders and protein sources, such as flour and egg yolk. Purists argue that alum-tawed leather is technically not tanned, as the resulting material will rot in water. Very light shades of leather are possible using this process, but the resulting material is not as supple as vegetable-tanned leather.
* Rawhide is made by scraping the skin thin, soaking it in lime, and then stretching it while it dries. Like alum-tawing, rawhide is not technically "leather", but is usually lumped in with the other forms. Rawhide is stiffer and more brittle than other forms of leather, and is primarily found in uses such as drum heads where it does not need to flex significantly; it is also cut up into cords for use in lacing or stitching, or for making many varieties of dog chews.

Less-common leathers include:

* Buckskin or brained leather is a tanning process that uses animal brains or other fatty materials to alter the leather. The resulting supple, suede-like hide is usually smoked heavily to prevent it from rotting.

* Patent leather is leather that has been given a high-gloss finish. The original process was developed in Newark, New Jersey, by inventor Seth Boyden in 1818. Patent leather usually has a plastic coating.

* Shagreen is also known as stingray skin/leather. Applications used in furniture production date as far back as the art deco period. The word "shagreen" originates from France.

* Vachetta leather is used in the trimmings of luggage and handbags. The leather is left untreated and is therefore susceptible to water and stains. Sunlight will cause the natural leather to darken in shade, called a patina.

* Slink is leather made from the skin of unborn calves. It is particularly soft, and is valued for use in making gloves.

* Deerskin is a tough leather, possibly due to the animal's adaptations to the its thorny and thicket-filled habitats.[citation needed] Deerskin has been used by many societies including indigenous Americans. Most modern deer skin is no longer procured from the wild, with deer farms breeding the animals specifically for the purpose of their skins. Large quantities are still tanned from wild deer hides in historic tanning towns such as Gloversville and Johnstown in upstate New York. Deerskin is used in jackets and overcoats, martial arts equipment such as kendo and bogu, as well as personal accessories like handbags and wallets.

* Nubuck is top-grain cattle hide leather that has been sanded or buffed on the grain side, or outside, to give a slight nap of short protein fibers, producing a velvet-like surface.

There are two other types of leather commonly used in specialty products, such as briefcases, wallets, and luggage:

* Belting leather is a full-grain leather that was originally used in driving pulley belts and other machinery. It is found on the surface of briefcases, portfolios, and wallets, and can be identified by its thick, firm feel and smooth finish. Belting leather is generally a heavy-weight of full-grain, vegetable-tanned leather.

* Nappa leather, or Napa leather, is chrome-tanned and is soft and supple. It is commonly found in wallets, toiletry kits, and other personal leather goods.

How much of a product should be leather?
You may have bought a pair of leather shoes or a leather wallet, and having looked at it closely wondered just how much of it is leather and how it can be sold as a 'genuine leather' article.

Manufacturers of leather articles are allowed to construct a product that is traded as 'genuine leather' with non-leather materials provided the incorporation on non-leather materials does not exceed specific levels.

The EC Directive 94/11 on Footwear Labelling states that a genuine leather shoe must contain the following proportions of leather:-

• Upper - 80% of surface area
• Lining/Sock - 80% of surface area
• Sole - 80% of volume

'If no one material accounts for at least 80%, information should be given on the two main materials used in the composition of the footwear.'

BLC Guidelines

The following are general guidelines which BLC Leather Technology Centre issue regarding the composition of leather articles :-
Watch Straps/Belts

Where both the outer layer and lining are leather, then it can be described as leather, genuine leather, or real leather provided no other materials comprise more than 50% of the surface area. However, if a strap or belt meets the previous definition of leather but at the same time clearly comprises less than 50% leather in total volume, then it should not be described as leather without further qualification as this may be misleading.
Upholstery

There are essentially two zones: "contact areas" i.e. seats, arm rests, vertical seat backs and rolls, and "non-contact areas" e.g. outside arms and back. Furniture should only be described as "leather" if both the "contact" and "non-contact" areas are leather.


Where only the "contact areas" are leather then the furniture should not be described as "leather" unless the description "leather chair with non leather areas" is used.


Sometimes the term "leather faced" is used under these circumstances.
Luggage, Bags, Leathergoods

At least 80% of the surface area of the main body should be leather (excluding internal dividers, pockets, pen holders etc.)

Areas

You'd be surprised the first time you see a full hide. Not only are they much larger than you think, they vary much more than you'd expect too.

Leather from different parts of the animal varies in its characteristics, and this has to be taken into account when using leather in products. The hide thickness varies all over the animal, and to get it to the right thickness it is usually split on a special cutting machine or buffed to an even thickness. The main parts of the hide are shown in the diagram below

Shoulder - the shoulder is thick and strong but tends to crease easily as this part of the hide is affected by movements of the head

Butt - the fibres in this part of the hide are tightly packed and hence the strongest part of the hide

Belly - this part of the hide is quite thin and has a much looser fibre structure than the back, and often stretches under stress.

Axillae - these are like the human armpits - they move a lot - so the fibre structure is quite loose, making it even more prone to loosening than the belly areas.
From Hide to Hair

Different parts of a hide have different properties in terms of strength, flexibility and durability. This makes some parts of a hide more suitable for use in sofa manufacturing than others.
Science

For a material that is so versatile, stylish and practical you could be fooled into thinking it is an extremely complicated material...far from it! There are basically just three main materials from which hides and skins are made :-

• Water 60-65%
• Protein 25-30%
• Fats 5-10%

The protein is mainly collagen (found in many cosmetics) and it is this collagen that is transformed into leather by the tanning process.

In good shape...

Raw hides and skins have four main parts - an epidermis, grain, corium and flesh - as shown in the diagram below :-

Two of these layers - the epidermis (which is a thin protective layer of cells during the life of an animal) and fleshy remains - are removed during tanning by a process called liming. This leaves just the grain and the corium, the interesting parts!

The grain layer is made of collagen and elastin protein fibres (found in many moisturisers and facial creams), and its structure varies quite a bit depending on the age, breed and lifestyle of the animal. The grain carries many distinctive marks such as insect bites, growth marks and wound scars giving the leather a unique appearance.

The corium is packed with collagen protein fibres, arranged in larger bundles and interwoven to give the structure great strength, excellent elasticity and durability.

The thickness of the corium increases with age which is why calfskins are thinner, smoother and softer than the hides of mature animals. Hides from cows are smoother, thinner and softer than the hides of mature male bull hides which are thick, tough, course grained and very strong.

Thick hides are often too thick for their end use and so they sometimes have to be split layerwise through the corium to give what we call a ‘grain split' - used for grain leather - and a ‘flesh split', used mainly for suede leather. Another little trick is to apply an artificial grain layer to the flesh split to make it look like grain leather! However the strength of these so called ‘finished split' leathers is reduced since the corium lacks the strength of the corium found in the grain layer.

How is leather made?
To get from a salted hide to a piece of leather ready for use in a sofa takes 10 working days!

The steps below show you what tanneries have to do to turn hides into leather :-
Curing

Raw hides and skins must be preserved to stop them deteriorating before the leather-making process can begin. Methods of preservation include salting, chilling, freezing and the use of biocides.
Soaking

Cured hides or skins are soaked in water for several hours to several days. This allows them to reabsorb any water they may have lost in the curing process or during transportation. It also helps to clean them of salt and dirt.
Painting

Painting is a method by which wool can be removed from sheepskins using a sulphide based mixture.
Liming

Liming removes the epidermis and hair. This also results in alkaline swelling of the pelt to cause a controlled breaking of some of the chemical crosslinks of the collagen .
Fleshing

After liming the pelt is passed through a machine to remove fleshy tissue from the flesh side. Hides may be split into layers at this stage or after tanning.
Deliming

The principal action of deliming is to gradually neutralise the alkali in the pelt, avoiding rapid changes in pH which could lead to distortion or disruption of the tissues.
Bating

A long delime can significantly improve the removal of any remaining lime, scud (miscellaneous debris) and residual components broken down during liming. Bating - based on the use of enzymes - completes this process so that the pelt is flat, relaxed, clean and ready for pickling and tanning.
Pickling

Weak acid and salt solutions are used to bring the pelt to the weakly acid state required for most tanning processes. Stronger pickling solutions are used to preserve pelts so that they can be stored or transported in a stable form over periods of several months.
Degreasing

Solvents or water-based systems can be used to remove excess grease before tanning.
Tanning

Tanning converts the protein of the raw hide or skin into a stable material, which will not putrefy and is suitable for a wide variety of purposes. Tanning materials form crosslinks in the collagen structure and stabilise it against the effects of acids, alkalis, heat, water and the action of micro-organisms. The main types of tanning materials are :
Mineral tannages

Most leather is tanned using salts of chromium.
Aldehyde and oil tannages

Tanning with aldehydes and oils produce very soft leathers and this system can be used to produce drycleanable and washable fashion leathers and also chamois leather.
Vegetable tannages

Various plant extracts produce brown coloured leathers which tend to be thick and firm. This type of tannage is used to produce stout sole leather, belting leather and leathers for shoe linings, bags and cases.
Splitting

A splitting machine slices thicker leather into two layers. The layer without a grain surface can be turned into suede or have an artificial grain surface applied.
Shaving

A uniform thickness is achieved by shaving the leather on the non-grain side using a machine with a helical blades mounted on a rotating cylinder.
Neutralisation

Neutralising removes residual chemicals and prepares the leather for further processing and finishing.

Additional tanning material may be applied to give particular properties which are required in the finished leather.
Dyeing

The dyeing of leather into a wide variety of colours plays an important part in meeting fashion requirements. Some leathers are only surface dyed, while others need completely penetrated dyeings, as is the case with suede leathers.
Fatliquoring

Fatliquoring introduces oils to lubricate the fibres and keep the leather flexible and soft. Without these oils the leather will become hard and inflexible as it dries out.
Samming

This process reduces water content to about 55% and can be achieved by a number of machines, the commonest being like a large mangle with felt covered rollers.
Setting out

The leather is stretched out and the grain side is smoothed. This process also reduces the water content to about 40%.
Final drying

Leather is normally dried to 10-20% water content. This can be achieved in a number of ways and each method has a different effect on the finished leather:
Staking and dry drumming

A staking machine makes the leather softer and more flexible by massaging it to separate the fibres. To finish off the leather may be softened by the tumbling action inside a rotating drum.
Buffing and Brushing

The flesh surface is removed by mechanical abrasion to produce a suede effect or to reduce the thickness. In some cases the grain surface is buffed to produce a very fine nap, e.g. nubuck leathers. After buffing the leather is brushed to remove excess dust.
Finishing

The aims of finishing are to level the colour, cover grain defects, control the gloss and provide a protective surface with good resistance to water, chemical attack and abrasion.
Final grading

Leather will be graded before despatch to the customer. This grading may consider the colour intensity and uniformity, the feel of the leather, softness, visual appearance, thickness, design effects and natural defects such as scratches.
Measurement

The area of each piece of leather is measured by machine. Nearly all leather is sold by area so accurate measurement is important.

The Mona Lisa. Where, when, how and why!

Portrait of Mona Lisa (1479-1528), also known as La Gioconda, the wife of Francesco del Giocondo; 1503-06 (150 Kb); Oil on wood, 77 x 53 cm (30 x 20 7/8 in); Musee du Louvre, Paris. This is what the tablet below the world's most famed painting reads to visitors. This figure of a woman, dressed in the Florentine fashion of her day and seated in a visionary, mountainous landscape, is a remarkable instance of the sfumato technique of soft, heavily shaded modeling. The Mona Lisa's enigmatic expression, which seems both alluring and aloof, has given the portrait universal fame. This sixteenth-century portrait painted in oil on a poplar panel by Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci during the Renaissance in Florence, Italy is currently owned by the Government of France and is on display at the Musée du Louvre in Paris under the title Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Giocondo.

The painting is a half-length portrait and depicts a seated woman (is almost unanimous that she's Lisa del Giocondo) whose facial expression is frequently described as enigmatic. Others believe that the slight smile is an indication that the subject is hiding a secret. The ambiguity of the subject's expression, the monumentality of the composition, and the subtle modeling of forms and atmospheric illusionism were novel qualities that have contributed to the continuing fascination and study of the work. Many critics note that Leonardo painted the most famous portrait of all time.

It was year 1503 in which Leonardo da Vinci began painting Mona Lisa.It was completed in four years according to Vasari.French king FrancoiseI invited Leonardo to paint at Clos Luc é near his castle. He carried Mona Lisa along with. King liked “Mona Lisa” a lot and bought it for 4000 écus. He kept this painting in Fontainebleau. Until King Louis XIV moved it, it remained there in Fontainebleau.
French King Louis XIV moved the painting to Palace of Versailles. It was moved to Louvre after the French Revolution. It was personally liked by Napoleon I and he placed it in his bedroom at the Tuileries Palace. Later it was sent to Louvre again.

This Mona Lisa image was not well known until the mid-19 th century. It began getting recognition only after the emergence of Symbolist movement, which incorporated the ideas about the feminine mystique. Critic Walter Peter made serious observations in 1867 about Mona Lisa.He expressed his views by describing the figure in the painting as a kind of mythic embodiment of eternal femininity, who is "older than the rocks among which she sits" and who “has been dead many times and learned the secrets of the grave.

The history of the Mona Lisa is shrouded in mystery. Among the aspects which remain unclear are the exact identity of the sitter, who commissioned the portrait, how long Leonardo worked on the painting, how long he kept it, and how it came to be in the French royal collection.
The portrait may have been painted to mark one of two events - either when Francesco del Giocondo and his wife bought their own house in 1503, or when their second son, Andrea, was born in December 1502 after the death of a daughter in 1499. The delicate dark veil that covers Mona Lisa's hair is sometimes considered a mourning veil. In fact, such veils were commonly worn as a mark of virtue. Her clothing is unremarkable. Neither the yellow sleeves of her gown, nor her pleated gown, nor the scarf delicately draped round her shoulders are signs of aristocratic status.

A new artistic formula

The Mona Lisa is the earliest Italian portrait to focus so closely on the sitter in a half-length portrait. The painting is generous enough in its dimensions to include the arms and hands without them touching the frame. The portrait is painted to a realistic scale in the highly structured space where it has the fullness of volume of a sculpture in the round. The figure is shown in half-length, from the head to the waist, sitting in a chair whose arm is resting on balusters. She is resting her left arm on the arm of the chair, which is placed in front of a loggia, suggested by the parapet behind her and the two fragmentary columns framing the figure and forming a "window" looking out over the landscape. The perfection of this new artistic formula explains its immediate influence on Florentine and Lombard art of the early 16th century. Such aspects of the work as the three-quarter view of a figure against a landscape, the architectural setting, and the hands joined in the foreground were already extant in Flemish portraiture of the second half of the 15th century, particularly in the works of Hans Memling. However, the spacial coherence, the atmospheric illusionism, the monumentality, and the sheer equilibrium of the work were all new. In fact, these aspects were also new to Leonardo's work, as none of his earlier portraits display such controlled majesty.

An emblematic smile

The Mona Lisa's famous smile represents the sitter in the same way that the juniper branches represent Ginevra Benci and the ermine represents Cecilia Gallerani in their portraits, in Washington and Krakow respectively. It is a visual representation of the idea of happiness suggested by the word "gioconda" in Italian. Leonardo made this notion of happiness the central motif of the portrait: it is this notion which makes the work such an ideal. The nature of the landscape also plays a role. The middle distance, on the same level as the sitter's chest, is in warm colors. Men live in this space: there is a winding road and a bridge. This space represents the transition between the space of the sitter and the far distance, where the landscape becomes a wild and uninhabited space of rocks and water which stretches to the horizon, which Leonardo has cleverly drawn at the level of the sitter's eyes.

There are many speculations about the painting's model and landscape. For example, that Leonardo probably painted his model faithfully since her beauty is not seen as one of the women's best beauty, "even when measured by late quattrocento (1400s) or even twenty-first century standards." Some specialists in Chinese art, such as Yukio Yashiro, also argue that the landscape in the background of the picture was influenced by Chinese paintings, however this thesis has been contested due to lack of clear evidence. Despite these arguments, it is known that Leonardo made some sketches before starting the picture.
A fascinating and typically “Leonardesque” composition

As he did in The Virgin of the Rocks, Leonardo set a religious scene in a fantastic landscape and placed an abyss between viewer and figures. The mountainous distance is conveyed by atmospheric perspective with bluish and crystalline highlights and reflects his interest in geology and meteorological phenomena.
The sfumato, Leonardo’s trademark painterly effect, unifies the composition by enveloping the figures and landscape in a diffuse, evanescent and poetic haze. This imbues the highly expressive faces with great gentleness. The work exudes an aura of strangeness which, combined with the subtle expressions and the picture’s unfinished state has given rise to a number of psychoanalytical interpretations since Freud.
The picture decisively influenced subsequent generations of artists, both classically-inspired painters such as Raphael and Solario, and Mannerists such as Andrea del Sarto This painting of Leonardo da Vinci is renowned to whole world for its aesthetic part.It was pyramid style which Leonardo craftily applied for painting Mona Lisa. The folded hands of the lady in the painting form the front corner of the pyramid.Her breast, neck and face glow in same proportion that gently models her hands. The light provides the variety of living surfaces an underlying geometry of spheres and circles.This painting was one of the first portraits to depict the sitter before an imaginary landscape.

History:
1479
Jun 15, 1479 - Via Maggio where Mona Lisa was born Mona Lisa Gherardini was born on 15th June 1479, in Florence, in a small house on the corner between via Sguazza and via . Portrait Of Lisa Gherardini Wife Of Francesco Del Giocondo, PARIS (LALATE) The Mona ...Via Maggio where Mona Lisa was born Mona Lisa Gherardini was born on 15th June 1479, in Florence, in a small house on the corner between via Sguazza and via . Portrait Of Lisa Gherardini Wife Of Francesco Del Giocondo, PARIS (LALATE) The Mona Lisa, of Lisa Gherardini, has now produced new relevations as a result . Friends: Artist Maram M., Livia Drusilla, René Descartes, Pam Mcmaster-Van Loo

1503
1503 - The Mona Lisa, painted by Leonardo Da Vinci The Mona Lisa is one of the most famous paintings in the world. Leonardo Da Vinci started work on the painting in 1503. He worked at the portrait for the next four years. The painting has caused much speculation ...The Mona Lisa, painted by Leonardo Da Vinci The Mona Lisa is one of the most famous paintings in the world. Leonardo Da Vinci started work on the painting in 1503. He worked at the portrait for the next four years. The painting has caused much speculation about who Mona Lisa really is, as well as questions about her overall expression and her smile.

1542
Jul 15, 1542 - A Mona Lisa exert, Giuseppe Pallanti, recently uncovered her death certificate in a church in Florence, Italy. According to it she died on July 15, 1542 and was buried at Sant'Orsola, currently an area near San Lorenzo basilica. Pallanti , and others like ...A Mona Lisa exert, Giuseppe Pallanti, recently uncovered her death certificate in a church in Florence, Italy. According to it she died on July 15, 1542 and was buried at Sant'Orsola, currently an area near San Lorenzo basilica. Pallanti , and others like him have devoted decades of his life, searching through archives in Florence. He authored the book "Mona Lisa Revealed: The True Identity of Leonardo's Model."

1963
Jan 9, 1963 - WASHINGTON Presi dent Kennedy flew here from Palm Beach yesterday to intro duce the Mona Lisa of Leonardo Da Vinci most famous portrait in the world. The scene was the great west sculpture hall of the National Gallery of Art where the public also will be able to see the Mona Lisa

Theft & Vandalism:
The Mona Lisa painting now hangs in the Musée du Louvre in Paris, France. The painting's increasing fame was further emphasized when it was stolen on August 22, 1911. The next day, Louis Béroud, a painter, walked into the Louvre and went to the Salon Carré where the Mona Lisa had been on display for five years. However, where the Mona Lisa should have stood, he found four iron pegs. Béroud contacted the section head of the guards, who thought the painting was being photographed for marketing purposes. A few hours later, Béroud checked back with the section head of the museum, and it was confirmed that the Mona Lisa was not with the photographers. The Louvre was closed for an entire week to aid in investigation of the theft.

French poet Guillaume Apollinaire, who had once called for the Louvre to be "burnt down," came under suspicion; he was arrested and put in jail. Apollinaire tried to implicate his friend Pablo Picasso, who was also brought in for questioning, but both were later exonerated.

At the time, the painting was believed to be lost forever, and it would be two years before the real thief was discovered. Louvre employee Vincenzo Peruggia stole it by entering the building during regular hours, hiding in a broom closet and walking out with it hidden under his coat after the museum had closed.[25] Peruggia was an Italian patriot who believed Leonardo's painting should be returned to Italy for display in an Italian museum. Peruggia may have also been motivated by a friend who sold copies of the painting, which would skyrocket in value after the theft of the original. After having kept the painting in his apartment for two years, Peruggia grew impatient and was finally caught when he attempted to sell it to the directors of the Uffizi Gallery in Florence; it was exhibited all over Italy and returned to the Louvre in 1913. Peruggia was hailed for his patriotism in Italy and only served six months in jail for the crime.

During World War II, the painting was again removed from the Louvre and taken safely, first to Château d'Amboise, then to the Loc-Dieu Abbey and finally to the Ingres Museum in Montauban. In 1956, the lower part of the painting was severely damaged when a vandal doused the painting with acid.[34] On December 30 of that same year, a young Bolivian named Ugo Ungaza Villegas damaged the painting by throwing a rock at it. This resulted in the loss of a speck of pigment near the left elbow, which was later painted over.

The use of bulletproof glass has shielded the Mona Lisa from more recent attacks. In April 1974, a handicapped woman, upset by the museum's policy for the disabled, sprayed red paint at the painting while it was on display at the Tokyo National Museum.On August 2, 2009, a Russian woman, distraught over being denied French citizenship, threw a terra cotta mug or teacup, purchased at the museum, at the painting in the Louvre; the vessel shattered against the glass enclosure.[37][38] In both cases, the painting was undamaged.

Perfumes et al

I saw Perfume, the story of a Murder recently, as was intrigued by perfumes and how they came about. A lot of this post is from wikipedia, because it seemed to have the most comprehensive detail on this topic, but of course there are the AJ specials too, which you wont find anywhere else easily... :-)
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, animals, objects, and living spaces a pleasant scent.Perfumes have been known to exist in some of the earliest human civilisations either through ancient texts or from archaeological digs. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin, which allowed for the composition of perfumes with smells previously unattainable solely from natural aromatics alone.
The word perfume used today derives from the Latin per fumus, meaning "through smoke". Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt and was further refined by the Romans and Persians.

Although perfume and perfumery also existed in India, much of its fragrances are incense based. The earliest distillation of Attar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita. The Harshacharita, written in 7th century in Northern India mentions use of fragrant agarwood oil.
The world's first recorded chemist is considered to be a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia.The Arabian chemist, Al-Kindi (Alkindus), wrote in the 9th century a book on perfumes which he named Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations. It contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs. The book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume making equipment, such as the alembic (which still bears its Arabic name).The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.
Concentration

Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types. The concentration by percent/volume of perfume oil is as follows:

* Perfume extract (Extrait): 15-40% (IFRA: typical 20%) aromatic compounds
* Eau de Parfum (EdP), Parfum de Toilette (PdT): 10-20% (typical ~15%) aromatic compounds. Sometimes listed as "eau de perfume" or "millésime".
* Eau de Toilette (EdT): 5-15% (typical ~10%) aromatic compounds
* Eau de Cologne (EdC): Chypre citrus type perfumes with 3-8% (typical ~5%) aromatic compounds
* Splash and After shave: 1-3% aromatic compounds

Perfume oils are often diluted with a solvent, though this is not always the case, and its necessity is disputed. By far the most common solvent for perfume oil dilution is ethanol or a mixture of ethanol and water. Perfume oil can also be diluted by means of neutral-smelling oils such as fractionated coconut oil, or liquid waxes such as jojoba oil.

The intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds (natural essential oils / perfume oils) used: As the percentage of aromatic compounds increases, so does the intensity and longevity of the scent created. Different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes. Therefore, although the oil concentration of a perfume in Eau de Parfum (EdP) dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in Eau de Toilette (EdT) from within the same range, the actual amounts can vary between perfume houses. An EdT from one house may be stronger than an EdP from another.

Men's fragrances are rarely sold as EdP or perfume extracts; equally so, women's fragrances are rarely sold in EdC concentrations. Although this gender specific naming trend is common for assigning fragrance concentrations, it does not directly have anything to do with whether a fragrance was intended for men or women. Furthermore, some fragrances with the same product name but having a different concentration name may not only differ in their dilutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether. For instance, in order to make the EdT version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EdP, the EdT oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or fewer base notes. In some cases, words such as extrême, intense, or concentrée that might indicate aromatic concentration are actually completely different fragrances, related only because of a similar perfume accord. An example of this is Chanel's Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentrée.
The most practical way to start describing a perfume is according to the elements of the fragrance notes of the scent or the "family" it belongs to, all of which affect the overall impression of a perfume from first application to the last lingering hint of scent.
Fragrance Notes
Perfume is described in a musical metaphor as having three sets of notes, making the harmonious scent accord. The notes unfold over time, with the immediate impression of the top note leading to the deeper middle notes, and the base notes gradually appearing as the final stage. These notes are created carefully with knowledge of the evaporation process of the perfume.

* Top notes: The scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume. Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly. They form a person's initial impression of a perfume and thus are very important in the selling of a perfume. Also called the head notes.
* Middle notes: The scent of a perfume that emerges just prior to when the top notes dissipate. The middle note compounds form the "heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time. They are also called the heart notes.
* Base notes: The scent of a perfume that appears close to the departure of the middle notes. The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume. Base notes bring depth and solidity to a perfume. Compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application.
The scents in the top and middle notes are influenced by the base notes, as well the scents of the base notes will be altered by the type of fragrance materials used as middle notes. Manufacturers of perfumes usually publish perfume notes and typically they present it as fragrance pyramid, with the components listed in imaginative and abstract terms.
Classification by olfactive family is a starting point for a description of a perfume, but it cannot by itself denote the specific characteristic of that perfume.

Traditional

The traditional classification which emerged around 1900 comprised the following categories:

* Single Floral: Fragrances that are dominated by a scent from one particular flower; in French called a soliflore. (e.g. Serge Lutens' Sa Majeste La Rose, which is dominated by rose.)
* Floral Bouquet: Is a combination of fragrance of several flowers in a perfume compound e.g. Attar Majmua & Fancy Boquet etc.
* Ambered, or "Oriental": A large fragrance class featuring the sweet slightly animalic scents of ambergris or labdanum, often combined with vanilla, tonka bean, flowers and woods. Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, which bring to mind Victorian era imagery of the Middle East and Far East.
* Wood: Fragrances that are dominated by woody scents, typically of agarwood, sandalwood and cedarwood. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes. A traditional example here would be Myrurgia's Maderas De Oriente or Chanel Bois-des-Îles. A modern example would be Balenciaga Rumba.
* Leather: A family of fragrances which features the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in its middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather.
* Chypre: Meaning Cyprus in French, this includes fragrances built on a similar accord consisting of bergamot, oakmoss, patchouli, and labdanum. This family of fragrances is named after a perfume by François Coty.
* Fougère: Meaning Fern in French, built on a base of lavender, onion, coumarin and oakmoss. Houbigant's Fougère Royale pioneered the use of this base. Many men's fragrances belong to this family of fragrances, which is notcharacterized by its sharp herbaceous and woody scent. Some well-known modern fougères are Fabergé Brut and Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir.

Modern

Since 1945, due to great advances in the technology of perfume creation (i.e., compound design and synthesis) as well as the natural development of styles and tastes; new categories have emerged to describe modern scents:

* Bright Floral: combining the traditional Single Floral & Floral Bouquet categories. A good example would be Estée Lauder's Beautiful.
* Green: a lighter and more modern interpretation of the Chypre type, with pronounced cut grass, crushed green leaf and cucumber-like scents. Two examples would be Estée Lauder's Aliage or Sisley's Eau de Campagne.
* Aquatic, Oceanic, or Ozonic: the newest category in perfume history, appearing in 1991 with Christian Dior's Dune. A very clean, modern smell leading to many of the modern androgynous perfumes. Generally contains calone, a synthetic scent discovered in 1966. Also used to accent floral, oriental, and woody fragrances.
* Citrus: An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de colognes, due to the low tenacity of citrus scents. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of primarily citrus fragrances. A good example here would be Hermès's Eau D'orange Verte.
* Fruity: featuring the aromas of fruits other than citrus, such as peach, cassis (black currant), mango, passion fruit, and others. A modern example here would be Ginestet Botrytis.
* Gourmand: scents with "edible" or "dessert"-like qualities. These often contain notes like vanilla, tonka bean and coumarin, as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors. A sweet example is Thierry Mugler's Angel. A savory example would be Dinner by BoBo, which has cumin and curry hints.

Fragrance wheel
The Fragrance wheel is a relatively new classification method that is widely used in retail and in the fragrance industry. The method was created in 1983 by Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume industry, who designed his own scheme of fragrance classification. The new scheme was created in order to simplify fragrance classification and naming scheme, as well as to show the relationships between each of the individual classes.The five standard families consist of Floral, Oriental, Woody, Fougère, and Fresh, with the former four families being more "classic" while the latter consisting of newer bright and clean smelling citrus and oceanic fragrances that have arrived due to improvements in fragrance technology. Each of the families are in turn divided into sub-groups and arranged around a wheel.

Aromatics sources

Plant sources

Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds. These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators. Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery. The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant. A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other. Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petitgrain, neroli, and orange oils.

* Bark: Commonly used barks includes cinnamon and cascarilla. The fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds.
* Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest source of aromatics. Includes the flowers of several species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, plumeria, mimosa, tuberose, narcissus, scented geranium, cassie, ambrette as well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees. Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also commonly used. Most orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of vanilla, an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery.
* Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are synthetic. Notable exceptions include litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry. The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such as oranges, lemons, and limes. Although grapefruit rind is still used for aromatics, more and more commercially used grapefruit aromatics are artificially synthesized since the natural aromatic contains sulfur and its degradation product is quite unpleasant in smell.
* Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include hay and tomato leaf.
* Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery. Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large variety of ailments. Commonly used resins in perfumery include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, Peru balsam, gum benzoin. Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds. Some of what is called amber and copal in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers.
* Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family.
* Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise.
* Woods: Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery. Commonly used woods include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine. These are used in the form of macerations or dry-distilled (rectified) forms.


Animal sources

* Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the sperm whale. Ambergris is commonly referred to as "amber" in perfumery and should not be confused with yellow amber, which is used in jewelry. Because the harvesting of ambergris involves no harm to its animal source, it remains one of the few animalic fragrancing agents around which little controversy now exists.
* Castoreum: Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver.
* Civet: Also called Civet Musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the family Viverridae, related to the mongoose. The World Society for the Protection of Animals investigated African civets caught for this purpose.
* Hyraceum: Commonly known as "Africa Stone", is the petrified excrement of the Rock Hyrax
* Musk: Originally derived from the musk sacs from the Asian musk deer, it has now been replaced by the use of synthetic musks sometimes known as "white musk".

Synthetic sources

Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources. For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. Orchid scents (typically salicylates) are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids.

The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies. They include:

* International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF)
* Givaudan
* Firmenich
* Takasago
* Symrise


Perfume Glossary

This glossary defines some commonly used terms in the world of perfume and fragrance.

Abelmosk: also known as Musk Mallow, and cultivated for its seeds, which are usually referred to as ambrette.

Absinthe: a strong herbal liqueur distilled with herbs like anise, licorice, hyssop, veronica, fennel, lemon balm, angelica and wormwood.

Absolute: also known as an essence, this is the material extracted from a plant or flower using one of various solvents.

Accord: a perfume accord is a balanced blend of notes which lose their individual identity to create a completely new, unified odor impression.

Agar wood: from the Aquilaria tree, and also called Oud or Aloes wood. The tree, when attacked by a common fungus, produces an aromatic resin that has long been used in the Middle East as a source of incense and perfume. Now considered endangered in the wild due to overharvesting.

Amber: in perfumery, this refers to accords developed using plant compounds (such as labdanum) or synthetics, and referred to as amber because they were originally meant to mimic the smell of ambergris (see below). For a more detailed explanation of the relationship between amber and ambergris, click here.

Ambergris: a sperm whale secretion. Sperm whales produce it to protect their stomachs from the beaks of the cuttlefish they swallow. Ambergris was traditionally used as a fixative, but in modern perfumery, ambergris is usually of synthetic origin (including the synthetic compounds ambrox, ambroxan, amberlyn). Ambergris is described as having a sweet, woody odor.

Ambrette: the oil obtained from these seeds has a musk-like odor and is frequently used as a substitute for true musk.

Animalic: refers to animal-derived ingredients such as civet, ambergris, musk, and castoreum. These are usually replaced by synthetics in modern perfumery. In large amounts, many of these notes are unpleasant, but in smaller amounts they provide depth and a sensual feel to a fragrance.

Anise: an annual herb of the parsley family, grown for its fruits (aniseed), which have a strong, licorice-like flavor.

Anosmia: the inability to smell odors. Many people have selective anosmias, for instance, the inability to smell certain synthethic musks.

Artemisia: see Wormwood.

Attar: Attar is the English form of itr, the Arabic word for fragrance or perfume. A traditional attar is made from the distilled essence of floral or other fragrance materials in a base of sandalwood oil.

Baies de Genièvre: French for juniper berry.

Baies Rose: pink peppercorns, from the tree schinus molle, also known as the Peruvian or California pepper tree. These are actually dried berries and not “true” peppercorns, and you will sometimes see them listed as “pink berries”.

Balsam of Peru: a tree resin from Central America, so named because it was historically shipped from Peru. Balsam of Tolu is from a closely related species of tree grown farther south; both resins are said to smell like vanilla and cinnamon.

Bay Rum: a traditional men’s cologne made from the leaves of the Pimenta racemosa (or Bay Rum tree) distilled in a mixture of rum and water.

Benzoin: a balsamic resin from the Styrax tree.

Bergamot: the tangy oil expressed from the nearly ripe, nonedible bergamot orange (a variety of bitter orange). The oranges are grown mostly in Italy and are also used to flavor Earl Grey tea.

Bigarade: a variety of bitter orange, also known as Seville orange. The zest is used to make the bigarade note used in perfumery.

Calone: an aroma chemical that adds a “sea breeze” or marine note, and first used in large quantities in Aramis New West (1988).

Cannelle: French for cinnamon.

Carambole: starfruit.

Cashmeran: an aroma chemical with a spicy, ambery, musky, floral odor. Meant to add a powdery, velvet nuance that invokes the smell or feel of cashmere. Often listed in fragrance notes as “cashmere woods”.

Cassie: floral note from acacia farnesiana (sweet acacia), a member of the mimosa family.

Cassis: black currant, or a liqueur made from black currant.

Castoreum: a secretion from the Castor beaver, or a synthetic substitute. Used to impart a leathery aroma to a fragrance.

Cedrat: French term for citron.

Champaca: a flowering tree of the magnolia family, originally found in India, also called the “Joy Perfume tree” as it was one of the main floral ingredients in that perfume. Traditionally used in Indian incense as well (see nag champa).

Chevrefeuille: French for honeysuckle.

Choya Nakh: a smoky aroma made from roasted seashells.

Chypre: pronounced “sheepra”, French for “Cyprus” and first used by François Coty to describe the aromas he found on the island of Cyprus. He created a woodsy, mossy, citrusy perfume named Chypre (launched by Coty in 1917). Classic chypre fragrances generally had sparkling citrus and floral notes over a dark, earthy base of oakmoss, patchouli, woods and labdanum. See also Perfumista tip: on fragrance families.

Cistus: see Labdanum.

Citron: a citrus fruit tree (citrus medica), sometimes referred to as a cedrat lemon. It is not a true lemon, although it is related to both lemons and limes. The peel is the source of the note citron which is used in perfumery; the leaves and twigs are used to distill cedrat petitgrain.

Civet: the African civet cat looks like a fox, and is related to the mongoose. Civet musk is produced by a gland at the base of the cat’s tail. Pure civet is said to have a strong, disagreeable odor, but in small quantities to add depth and warmth to a fragrance. In addition, civet acts as an excellent fixative. Most modern fragrances use synthetic substitutes.

Clary sage: an herb of the salvia family; the essential oil is described as smelling sweet to bittersweet, with nuances of amber, hay and tobacco.

Clou de girofle: French for clove.

Coffret: a gift box or set. A coffret might include several fragrances, or a fragrance and matching body products.

Copahu (balm): also called Copaiba balsam; an oil obtained from trees of family Copaifera, which grow wild in South America. Described as having a mild, sweet, balsamic peppery smell.

Coumarin: a compound that smells like vanilla. Usually derived from the tonka bean (see Tonka bean), but also found in lavender, sweetgrass and other plants. Coumarin is banned as a food additive in the United States due to toxicity issues, but is used to produce anti-coagulant medicines, rat poison, and as a valuable component of incense and perfumes.

Cuir: French for leather.

Cypriol: an essential oil derived from the roots of Cyperus scariosus, aka Indian papyrus, aka nagarmotha grass. The term cypriol is sometimes used interchangeably with papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) in lists of perfume notes.

Davana: oil derived from artemisia pallens, described as having a sweet, fruity odor.

Elemi: a gum resin which introduces a light, fresh, balsamic-spicy, citrus-like scent.

Epices: French for spices.

Factice: a perfume bottle made for commercial display only — the contents are not actually perfume.

Flanker: a fragrance that capitalizes on the success of a master brand. For instance, J Lo Glow was followed by the flanker scents Miami Glow and Love at First Glow. Many flankers are released as limited editions. Some flanker scents are variations on the original fragrance (i.e. they might share certain notes), others share nothing more than the name.

Fougère: one of the fragrance families (see Perfumista tip: on fragrance families); this one named after the French word for fern and established by the 1884 Houbigant fragrance Fougère Royale. Fougères center on an herbaceous accord that might include notes like lavender, coumarin, oakmoss, woods, and bergamot.

Frangipani: a tropical flower, also known as West Indian Jasmine (although botanically speaking it is not a member of the jasmine family) and plumeria, and is frequently used to make leis.

Frankincense: a gum resin from a tree (genus Boswellia) found in Arabia and Eastern Africa. It is harvested by making an incision in the bark; the milky juice leaks out and is left to harden over a period of months before it is collected. Also called Olibanum.

Galbanum: a gum resin that imparts a “green” smell.

Gourmand: in perfumery, describes fragrances which evoke food smells, such as chocolate, honey, or fruits.

Guaiac (or Gaiac) Wood: the oil is steam distilled from a South American tree that produces the hardest, densest wood known. Also known as ironwood, lignum vitae.

Headspace technology: a method of “capturing” the odor of a substance using an apparatus resembling a bell-jar. This has allowed perfumers to mimic the notes of flowers, plants, and foods which do not lend themselves otherwise to extraction. The different fragrance & flavor companies have their own fragrance capture systems based on headspace technology, including ScentTrek (Givaudan), “Jungle Essence” (Mane), NaturePrint (Firmenich).

Hedione: an aroma chemical said to have a soft but radiant jasmine aroma, and also appreciated for its diffusive effect.

Heliotrope: botanically speaking, this refers to more than one type of flower, but in perfumery, it refers to a flowers of the family heliotropium, which are said to have a strong, sweet vanilla-like fragrance with undertones of almond.

Hesperidia: a general term for citrus oils.

Immortelle: aka everlasting flower aka strawflower; the latin name is helichrysum. Has a greenish, herbaceous, almost bitter smell.

Indole: a chemical compound which smells floral at low concentrations, fecal at high concentrations. Used widely in perfumery, also found naturally in some floral notes, such as jasmine, tuberose and orange blossom.

Iso E Super: an aroma chemical; described by International Flavors & Fragrances as “Smooth, woody, amber note with a ‘velvet’ like sensation. Superb floralizer. Used to impart fullness and subtle strength to fragrances.”

Kalamanzi: also called calamansi, acid orange or Panama orange. A citrus fruit, with a sour flavor said to resemble a cross between mandarin and lime.

Karo Karounde: (sometimes karo karunde) a flowering shrub from Africa. The scent, which is apparently very potent in the wild, has been described as somewhat similar to jasmine, but woodier, spicier and more herbal. Found in L’Artisan Timbuktu, Etro Shaal Nur and Comme des Garcons Sequoia.

Khus: also khus khus. An Indian term for vetiver, or the oil derived from vetiver roots.

Labdanum: an aromatic gum that originates from the rockrose bush (genus Cistus). The sweet woody odor is said to mimic ambergris, and can also be used to impart a leather note.

Licorice: a shrub native to Europe and Asia. The roots are used for candy and flavoring, and are said to be 50 times sweeter than sugar. Almost all licorice candy sold in the United States, however, is flavored with anethole, which is derived from anise.

Lignum Vitae: see Guaiac.

Linden: also called lime-blossom, but this is from the flower of the Linden (Tilia) tree, not the citrus tree that produces limes. French name is Tilleul.

Mastic: aka lentisc, a plant resin from a small shrubby tree (Pistacia lentiscus), the collected raw resin crystals are called “mastic tears” or “chios tears”. Mastic is used as a seasoning in Turkey and Egypt and is known for its medicinal properties. It is used in perfume, varnish, and as a liqueur flavoring.

Monoi: the word means “scented oil”; in modern perfumery, this most always refers to tiare (gardenia) petals macerated in coconut oil. Sometimes called Monoi de Tahiti.

Mousse de Chêne: see Oakmoss.

Muguet: French for Lily of the Valley. The Italian term is “Mughetto”.

Myrrh: a gum resin produced from a bush found in Arabia and Eastern Africa.

Nag Champa: the name of a perfume oil originally made in the Hindu and Buddhist monasteries of India and Nepal and used to perfume incense. Traditionally made from a sandalwood base, to which are added a variety of flower oils, including that from the flower of the Champaca tree.

Neroli: an oil from the blossoms of either the sweet or bitter orange tree. True neroli is created using steam distillation, wheareas “orange blossom” is usually extracted with solvents. The Italian term for neroli is zagara.

Nose: a “nose”, or nez in French, is a person who mixes fragrance components to make perfume; another commonly used term is perfumer, or in French, parfumeur createur. There is a picture of a nose at her perfume organ on the parfumsraffy site.

Oakmoss: derived from a lichen (evernia prunastri) that grows on Oak trees.

Olibanum: see Frankincense.

Opoponax: also known as “sweet myrrh” and “bisabol myrrh”. Has a sweet, balsam-like, lavender-like fragrance when used as incense. King Solomon supposedly regarded opoponax as one of the “noblest” of all incense gums.

Orris: derived from the rhizome of the Iris plant.

Osmanthus: a flowering tree native to China, valued for its delicate fruity apricot aroma. Known as the Tea Olive in the southern United States.

Oud: Sometimes spelled oudh. The Arabic word for wood, in perfumery usually refers to wood from the Agar tree.

Ozonic: used to describe aroma chemicals that are meant to mimic the smell of fresh air. Frequently described as the smell of air right after a thunderstorm.

Pamplemousse: French for grapefruit.

Patchouli: a bushy shrub originally from Malaysia and India. Supposedly the leaves were folded into the cashmere shawls shipped from India to England during Victorian times in order to protect the fabric from moths; eventually, the scent became a badge of authenticity and customers refused to buy unscented shawls. Patchouli has a musty-sweet, spicy aroma.

Perfumer: see Nose.

Petitgrain: oil distilled from leaves and twigs of a citrus tree, usually the bitter orange tree.

Pikaki: a form of jasmine (jasminum sambac) grown in Hawaii and used for making leis. Also known as Arabian jasmine, and widely used to make jasmine tea.

Pivoine: French for peony.

Plumeria: see Frangipani.

Poivre: French for pepper.

Rockrose: see Labdanum.

Rose de Mai: rose absolute made from the centifolia rose.

Sandalwood: an oil extracted from the heartwood of the Sandal tree, originally found in India. One of the oldest known perfumery ingredients, the powdered wood is also used to make incense.

Sillage: the trail of scent left behind by a perfume. Fragrances with minimal sillage are often said to “stay close to the skin”.

Soliflore: a fragrance which focuses on a single flower.

Tagetes: Marigold.

Tiare: a variety of Gardenia, Gardenia tahitensis. It is the national flower of Tahiti. See also: monoi.

Tilleul: French for Linden.

Tolu: also known as Balsam of Tolu. A tree resin from South America, which when dried is said to have a strong aroma with elements of vanilla & cinnamon. Also used in cough syrups. Balsam of Peru is from a closely related species of tree.

Tonka Bean: a thumb-size pod from a plant native to Brazil, said to smell of vanilla with strong hints of cinnamon, cloves and almonds. Cheaper than vanilla pods, and sometimes used as a vanilla substitute outside of the United States (see Coumarin).

Vanilla: vanilla is derived from the seed pod of the vanilla orchid, a flowering vine which is native to Mexico (although most of the vanilla available today comes from Madagascar). The vanilla orchid flower itself is scentless. True vanilla requires extensive hand-processing, and is therefore expensive.

Vetiver: a grass with heavy, fibrous roots, which are used to distill an oil with the scent of moist earth with woody undertones. The grass is also grown in many countries as a means of erosion control. There is a picture of the root system being harvested in the review of Hermès Vetiver Tonka.

Wormwood: diverse family of plants, so named because at one time they were used to prepare worming medicine. The latin name is artemisia, and in perfumery, wormwood and/or artemisia often refers specifically to artemisia absinthium, one of the key ingredients of Absinthe.

Yuzu: a citrus fruit grown in Japan. It looks like a small grapefruit; the flavor has been described as a cross between grapefruit and mandarin orange.

Ylang Ylang: the Malayan term for Cananga odorata, an Asian evergreen tree. Translates to “flower of flowers”.

Zagara: Italian for neroli

So coming to a review of the history of perfume and perfumery

The word perfume used today derives from the Latin "per fume", meaning through smoke. Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Egypt but was developed and further refined by the Romans and the Arabs. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in East Asia, much of its fragrances are incense based.The world's first chemist is considered to be a person named Tapputi, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the second millennium BC in Mesopotamia. Recently, archaeologists have uncovered what is believed to be the world's oldest perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years. The perfumes where discovered in an ancient perfumery factory.

At least 60 distilling stills, mixing bowls, funnels and perfume bottles were found in the 43,000 square foot factory. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, like almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, bergamot, but not flowers. The Iranian doctor and chemist Avicenna introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, (the procedure most commonly used today). He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed herbs, or petals which made a strong blend. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both of the raw ingredients and distillation technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.Knowledge of perfumery came to Europe as early as the 14th century due partially to Arabic influences and knowledge. But it was the Hungarians who ultimately introduced the first modern perfume. The first modern perfume, made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution, was made in 1370 at the command of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary and was known throughout Europe as Hungary Water.

The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century, Italian refinements were taken to France by Catherine de Medicis personal perfumer, Rene le Florentin. His laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulas could be stolen en route. France quickly became the European center of perfume and cosmetic manufacture. Cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. During the Renaissance period, perfumes were used primarily by royalty and the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from the sanitary practices of the day. Partly due to this patronage, the western perfumery industry was created. By the 18th century, aromatic plants were being grown in the Grasse region of France to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, France remains the centre of the European perfume design and trade.

Preserving perfume
Fragrance compounds in perfumes will degrade or break down if improperly stored in the presence of:

* Heat
* Light
* Oxygen
* Extraneous organic materials

Proper preservation of perfumes involve keeping them away from sources of heat and storing them where they will not be exposed to light. An opened bottle will keep its aroma intact for up to a year, as long as it is full or nearly so, but as the level goes down, the presence of oxygen in the air that is contained in the bottle will alter the perfume's smell character, eventually distorting them.Perfumes are best preserved when kept in light-tight aluminium bottles or in their original packaging when not in use, and refrigerated at a relatively low temperatures between 3-7 degrees Celsius. Although it is difficult to completely remove oxygen from the headspace of a stored flask of fragrance, opting for spray dispensers instead of rollers and "open" bottles will minimize oxygen exposure. Sprays also have the advantage of isolating fragrance inside a bottle and preventing it from mixing with dust, skin, and detritus, which will degrade and alter the quality of a perfume.

So which is the most expensive perfume brand available in the market? Which perfume bottle is adorned with a five-carat diamond? Read on to find out. . . (These perfumes have been ranked by www.perfumejuice.com.

1. Clive Christian's Imperial Majesty: Price $215,000
British designer Clive Christian's creation has recently been voted in the Guiness Book of World Records the most expensive perfume in the world. The 16.9-ounce perfume bottle is stuck into the 18-carat gold collar that is adorned with a five-carat diamond. Only five bottles are made annually, justifying the eye-popping price.

2. Clive Christian No. 1: Price $2,150 (2 oz.)Clive Christian No. 1
This perfume is an extravagant combination of Indian jasmine, mandarin and sandalwood. Its bottle is handmade from lead crystal, while the neck is 24-karat gold-plated sterling silver, set with a solitaire.

The stopper is designed after the original pattern granted by Queen Victoria.

3. Caron's Poivre: $2,000
The peppery unisex fragrance of Caron Poivre is a snip at $2,000 (for 2 oz).Caron's Poivre

This perfume is a concoction of lavender, jasmine, rose, Lily of the valley, carnation, cedar, sandalwood, Tonka and musk.

The maker of this perfume, Caron, is one of the last perfume houses to still have an in-house 'nose' (Monsieur Fraysse) -- also called a master perfumer.

4. Chanel No 5: Price $1,850Chanel No 5
One of the world's most famous perfumes relies heavily on jasmine. It was the first fragrance from Parisian couturier, Gabrielle 'Coco' Chanel.

History has it that Chanel commissioned renowned perfumer Ernest Beaux to make six perfumes. They were labelled No. 1, No. 2, etc. through No. 6. Chanel liked No. 5 the most and that became the chosen formula.

Initially, this perfume was given to some of Chanel's clients for free at her boutique.
Baccarats Les Larmes Sacrees de Thebe
5. Baccarats Les Larmes Sacrees de Thebe: Price $1,700
Baccarat, better known as the maker of high-quality crystal, entered the fragrance business in the late 1990s with three limited-edition fragrances of its own.

Baccarats Les Larmes Sacrees de Thebe combines frankincense and myrrh. The perfume comes in exquisite Baccarat crystal bottles.Annick Goutal's Eau d'Hadrien

6. Annick Goutal's Eau d'Hadrien: Price $1,500
Annick Goutal is a European perfumer, former model and prize-winning pianist. Her Eau d'Hadrien is a fresh, citrus blend of Sicilian lemons, grapefruit and cypress.

7. Hermes' 24 Faubourg: Price $1,500Hermes' 24 Faubourg
This women's perfume, which comes in 1-oz bottles, is made by French fashion house Hermes International.

Hermes started its fragrance line in 1951. Over the past 57 years, the company has created several fragrances for both men and women.

8. Jean Patou's Joy: Price $800Jean Patou's Joy
This is quite a popular fragrance among Hollywood stars. It comes in 1-oz bottles and is a heavy floral scent, based on the most precious rose and jasmine, created by French fashion designer Jean Patou.

Other Patou perfumes are Amour Amour, Adieu Sagesse and Que Sais Je.
But 'Joy' is the most well known one.