The Pyramids... and a deliberation on their construction

The earliest form of pyramid, the step, dates back to the 3rd Dynasty, and consists of several steps. A descending passage from the north leads to the burial chamber. Underground galleries surround the pyramid on all but the south sides. The first, and probably the only step pyramid ever completed, is that of King Netjerykhet Djoser at Saqqara. The Step pyramid is not near as pleasing to the eye as the True pyramid, which could explain the quick abandonment of this type of pyramid.
The true pyramid is a natural development and improvement on the step pyramid. The first true pyramids were introduced in at the beginning of the 4th Dynasty. The structure of a True Pyramid is virtually the same as a step pyramid. Packing blocks are stacked until the dimensions were right, and then finishing blocks (usually limestone) were the last touch. The aesthetics are much more pleasing than the step pyramid, but the construction isn't really that different.
A major problem facing the builders of the Ancient Egyptian Pyramids, was that of getting the Large stone blocks to the height they required. the method shown at left, is the only one proven to have been used. The ramps were built on inclined planes of mud brick and rubble. They then dragged the blocks on sledges to the needed height. As the pyramid grew taller, the ramp had to be extended in length, and its base was widened, else it would collapse. It is likely that for the construction of each pyramid, several ramps were probably used..The arrangement of the ramps used for building is in much dispute. Assuming that the step pyramid was built before the outer structure, and then the packing blocks were laid on top, the ramps could have run from one step to another rather than approaching the pyramid face at right angles.
Some of the pyramids indicate an accurate understanding of Pi, but the mathematical knowledge of the Egyptians did not include the ability to arrive at this by calculation. It is possible that this could have been arrived at "accidentally" through a means such as counting the revolutions of a drum.

The internal construction of most true pyramids consists of a series of buttress walls surrounding a central core. The walls decrease in height from the center outwards. In other words, the core of the true pyramid is essentially a step pyramid. The internal arrangement added stability to the structure. Packing blocks filled the "steps" formed by the faces of the outermost buttress walls and casting blocks (often Limestone) completed the structure of the true pyramid.
Architects and builders used a different form of construction in the pyramids of the 12th and 13th Dynasties. Mainly because of economy, for it was suitable for relatively modest structures in inferior materials. Solid walls of stone ran from the center, and shorter cross walls formed a series of chambers filled with stone blocks, ruble or mud bricks. An outer casing was usually added, and although quite effective in the short term, it did not even come close to the earlier construction methods. Pyramids which were built with this structural design are quite dilapidated and worn.
Before the physical orientation and layout of a new pyramid took place, considerable planning was needed under the direction of a "royal master builder". Ultimately, the responsibility fell on the vizier, who was typically the head of all royal works. The first step in the process was taken by specialists who would draw up plans for the pyramid on papyrus. After the construction began, plans and sketches were drawn on papyri or flat slabs of limestone. Planners even made models of their projects, as evidenced by a limestone model of a substructure found in the Pyramid of Amenemhet III at Dahshur. After the planning stage, each step of pyramid building was initiated with foundation rituals.
Pyramids, unlike many other types of religious structures, required strict orientation to the cardinal points. Pyramid alignment may have been carried out through a number of different means, including some methods we have probably never thought of. The primary theory of how the ancient Egyptians oriented most any building that had to conform to true primary coordinates has been by stellar measurements. This involved building a small, circular wall of perhaps mudbrick that had to be perfectly level at the top. Within the circle, a man would stand and through a straight pole with a forked top called a bay, sight a circumpolar star as it rises. A second man at the perimeter of the small circular wall would then "spot" the wall where the star rose. Using a type of plumb line, or merkhet, he would also spot the mark at the bottom of the wall. When the star set, the process would be repeated. Measuring between the two spots would then provide true north from the center sighting pole.

Recently several other theories have been raised, all of which involve some sort of astronomical measurements. A British scholar named K. Spence believes that the Egyptians used two circumpolar stars (Delta Ursae Majoris and Beta Urae Minoris or Epsilon Usae Majoris and Gamma Urae Minors) Another theory set out by a Slovak Egyptologist, D. Magdolen, believes that the ancient Egyptians oriented their monuments using the sun, by means of wooden stakes and ropes. There is in fact a reference in ancient text referring to "the shadow" and the "stride of Ra".

The sun rises and sets in equal but opposite angles to true north. Using a plumb line, a pole would have been set as vertically as possible. Then, about three hours before noon, its shadow would be measured. This length then becomes the radius of a circle. As the sun rises higher, the shadow shrinks back from the line and then becomes longer in the afternoon. When it reaches the circle again it forms an angle with the morning's line. The bisection of the angle is true north. However, this method would be less accurate then the stellar method, but could be fairly accurate during the solstices.

Creating the Ground Plan

After the primary coordinates were determined, the ground plan would be marked out. Some of the methods used to do so varied from pyramid to pyramid. Here, we examine the means by which the ground plan of the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza was determined.
Initially, a reference line along true north was constructed from the orientation process. The next step would be to create a true square with precise right angles. Within Khufu's pyramid, there is actually a massif of natural rock jutting up that was used as part of the pyramid's core. Therefore, measuring the diagonals of the square to check for accuracy was impossible.
A second method would have employed the use of a sacred or Pythagorean triangle. The triangles seem to be present in the design of the Old Kingdom pyramids, but there is no real conclusive evidence of their use. Basically, this triangle uses three equal units on one side, four on the next, and five on the hypotenuse to give a true right angle. At Khufu's pyramid a series of holes along the orientation line are dug at seven cubit (3.675 meters or about 12 ft) intervals, so the triangle probably used these positions in the measurement. In other words, the triangle would have been measured as 21 cubits by 28 cubits with a 35 cubit hypotenuse. This would have resulted in a much longer measurement for the perpendicular line then with the use of a set square. If the unites used were any greater, the measurement would have been interrupted by the rock outcrop.
A third method possibly available to the early Egyptians would have been through the use of intersecting arcs. In this method, two circles would have been sketched by rotating a cord around two points on the orientation line. The intersection of the two circles would then provide a right angle. Some doubt this method was used because the elasticity of the string or rope used to sketch the circles would lead to inaccuracies. However, at Khufu's pyramid, there are a number of post holes dug that might have been used to draw such circles, so the method cannot be ruled out. Furthermore, the Egyptian may have used a rod or other device rather than rope or string to draw the circle, eliminating elasticity.

The Platform

An orientation reference line was set up in a larger square by measuring off the established square ground plan. This was done by digging post holes at measured distances from the inner square in the bedrock and inserting small posts through which a rope or string ran. These holes were dug at about 10 cubit intervals. This outer reference line was needed because the original orientation lines would be erased by building work. Various segments of the reference line could be removed so that building material could be moved into place. Then measurements were taken from the guide line as the material for the platform were put in place so that the the platform was in accord with the initial floor plan.
Not only was the platform required to be laid in a perfect square, but it was also required to be very level. In Khufu's pyramid, the platform is level to within about 2.1 cm (one inch). There were several means that this too could be accomplished. Traditional though, apparently originally conceived by Edwards, suggests the use of water to level the platform. He thought that the ancient Egyptians might have built a mud enclosure around the platform that was then filled with water. A grid of trenches would have been cut at a uniform depth below the water. However, modern Egyptologists believe this method would have been cumbersome at best. The platform would have had to have been chiseled beneath the water. Perhaps a more accepted theory involves channels being cut to form a grid within the platform, which was then filled with water. At the top of the water's surface, the level would be marked along the sides of the channels, and then the platform cut accordingly.
Our thinking on pyramids has evolved considerably over the years. Many of us who are a bit older were taught that the pyramids were built using Jewish slave labor, which is a fabrication of immense proportions. Most of the pyramids were built long before the Jews made their appearance historically and currently, many if not most scholars believe they were not built using slave labor at all (or perhaps a nominal number of slaves).

Otherwise, we can also dismiss offhand alternative theories related to aliens or some lost culture being responsible for pyramid building. There is just far too much evidence, including tools, drawings, evolutionary changes, and even worker villages that rule these farfetched ideas obsolete.
However, some mysteries remain, even in some of the best well known Pyramids. The most famous of them all, the Great Pyramid of Khufu, continues, year after year, to give up a few more secrets, and there doubtless remains much to learn from these Egyptian treasures. There may even be one or more pyramids yet to be discovered.

(c)Tour Egypt & The data from the Museum of Antiquities,Cairo

Mobile phones.. Since when have we been seeing these things around?

This morning I stumbled upon a very cool article on PCWorld.com called "In Pictures: A History of Cell Phones."
(Ref. Al Sacco in Soapbox)
What follows are few of the most notable events in the evolution of the cell phone, according to the article.

1973

* Motorola touts a prototype of the world's first mobile cellular phone, the Motorola DynaTAC 8000X. It's more than a foot long, weighs nearly 2 pounds and sells for $4,000. However, it wasn't commercially available until a decade later.

1982

* Finnish handset maker Nokia introduces its first mobile phone, the Nokia Mobira Senator. The device looks very much like a portable radio and it weighs a whopping 21 pounds. Yikes.


1993

* BellSouth/IBM unveil the world's first mobile phone with PDA features, including phone and pager functionality, calculator and calendar applications, as well as fax and e-mail capability. The BellSouth/IBM Simon Personal Communicator weighs 21 ounces and sells for $900.

1996

* Motorola debuts its StarTAC mobile phone, merging fashion and functionality into the cell phone. It weighs 3.1 ounces--light by even today's standards--and it is a clam shell device.

2000

* Kyocera introduces its QCP6035 mobile phone, the very first widely available Palm OS-based phone. It costs between $400 and $500 but only included 8MB of memory.

2001

* Before Palm acquired Handspring, the company released its Handspring Treo 180 cellular phone, which came in two versions. The Treo 180 was available with a QWERTY keyboard as well as in a separate version with text input method called Graffiti.

2002

* The Danger Hiptop, which later became known as the T-Mobile Sidekick, hits the mobile space. It is one of the first mobile devices to include a quality Web browser, reliable e-mail access and instant messaging, as well a unique swiveling form factor. (PCWorld.com later went on to name the device its 2003 product of the year.)
* The BlackBerry 5810 hits the market in 2002, and though it's not the first BlackBerry, it's the first such device from Research In Motion (RIM) to include voice functionality--though a headset is required because it doesn't have an external microphone or speaker.
* Sanyo and Sprint make the Sprint SCP-5300 PCS available, and both companies claim it's the first mobile phone in the United States to include a digital camera. Image quality is, however, less than impressive.

2004

* Motorola announces its RAZR v3 cell phone and starts a trend toward ultra-thin, stylish phones that's still influencing mobile device manufacturers today. The RAZR v3 is a "cool" device that everyone, from high schoolers to businessmen, wants. It's still one of the most popular mobile phones, and its one of the few handsets offered by the majority of major cellular carriers.

2006

* RIM, known for its high-end business phones and reliable "push" e-mail technology, makes its first foray into the consumer space with the BlackBerry Pearl 8100. The device is the first from RIM to include a digital camera and media player and it's also the smallest, thinnest BlackBerry--currently, the company's 8800 series of devices are the thinnest it offers. (Read CIO.com's review for more on the BlackBerry Pearl.)

2007

* Apple releases the iPhone, a beautifully designed device that includes an innovative--and much hyped up--touch screen navigation interface, which doesn't require the use of a stylus. The device is available exclusively through AT&T in the United States, and it comes in a 4GB version for $499 and an 8GB version for $599.

Digital wireless and cellular roots go back to the 1940s when commercial mobile telephony began. Compared with the furious pace of development today, it may seem odd that mobile wireless hasn't progressed further in the last 60 years. Where's my real time video watch phone? There were many reasons for this delay but the most important ones were technology, cautiousness, and federal regulation.

First generation analog cellular systems begin:-

BatelcoThe Bahrain Telephone Company (Batelco external link) in May, 1978 began operating a commercial cellular telephone system. It probably marks the first time in the world that individuals started using what we think of as traditional, mobile cellular radio. The two cell system had 250 subscribers, 20 channels in the 400Mhz band to operate on, and used all Matsushita equipment. (Panasonic is the name of Matsushita in the United States.) [Gibson]Cable and Wireless, now Global Crossing, installed the equipment.

In July, 1978 Advanced Mobile Phone Service or AMPS started operating in North America. In AT&T labs in Newark, New Jersey, and most importantly in a trial around Chicago, Illinois Bell and AT&T jointly rolled out analog based cellular telephone service. Ten cells covering 21,000 square miles made up the Chicago system. This first equipment test began using 90 Bell System employees. After six months, on December 20th, 1978, a market trial began with paying customers who leased the car mounted telephones. This was called the service test. The system used the newly allocated 800 MHz band. Although the Bell System bought an additional 1,000 mobile phones from Oki for the lease phase, it did place orders from Motorola and E.F. Johnson for the remainder of the 2100 radios needed. [Business Week2] This early network, using large scale integrated circuits throughout, a dedicated computer and switching system, custom made mobile telephones and antennas, proved a large cellular system could work.

The Rise of GSM

Europeans saw things differently. No new telephone system could accommodate their existing services on so many frequencies. They decided instead to start a new technology in a new radio band. Cellular structured but fully digital, the new service would incorporate the best thinking of the time. They patterned their new wireless standard after landline requirements for ISDN, hoping to make a wireless counterpart to it. The new service was called GSM.
GSM first stood for Groupe Speciale Mobile, after the study group that created the standard. It's now known as Global System for Mobile Communications, although the "C" isn't included in the abbreviation. In 1982 twenty-six European national phone companies began developing GSM. This Conference of European Postal and Telecommunications Administrations or CEPT, planned a uniform, European wide cellular system around 900 MHz. A rare triumph of European unity, GSM achievements became "one of the most convincing demonstrations of what co-operation throughout European industry can achieve on the global market." Planning began in earnest and continued for several years.

In the mid-1980s commercial mobile telephony took to the air. The North American terrestrial system or NATS was introduced by Airfone in 1984, the company soon bought out by GTE. The aeronautical public correspondence or APC service breaks down into two divisions. The first is the ground or terrestial based system (TAPC). That's where aircraft placed telephone calls go directly to a ground station. The satellite-based division, which came much later, places calls to a satellite which then relays the transmission to a ground station. AT&T soon established their own TAPC network after GTE..
PCS or Personal Communication Services were all digital, using TDMA routines and also code division multiple access or CDMA. These were IS-136 and IS-95, respectively. The most notable offering was European GSM, brought to America at a higher frequency and sometimes dubbed PCS1900. It uses TDMA. The evolution of IS-54, IS-136, came into being shortly after these new spectrum blocks were opened up. Today some carriers use both 900 MHz and 1900 MHz spectrum in a single area, putting a mobile call on whatever band is best at the time.

As we look toward the future the demand for new mobile wireless services seems unlimited, especially with the mobile internet upon us. Existing voice oriented systems will continue and be updated. New systems such as 3G will arrive in America once additional spectrum is cleared for their use. These new services will combine data and voice, treating transmission in a different way. Packet switching is a fundamental, elemental change between how wireless was delivered in the past and how it will be presented in the future.

The Origins & Future of the Internet

he Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is at once a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for information dissemination, and a medium for collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location.

The Internet represents one of the most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and development of information infrastructure. Beginning with the early research in packet switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in evolving and deploying this exciting new technology.
A brief history of the development of the Internet is shown below:

1969. A group of DoD researchers linked four computers at UCLA, SRI, University of Utah and the UCSB. They created a network to communicate with one another about government projects. The network was part of the DoD's Advanced Research Project Agency, and was dubbed ARPAnet;

· 1972. More than 50 universities and military agencies were linked together on the network. For a short period of time it was a top secret defence project, ensuring that computers could talk to each other in the event of a nuclear attack. The communication system between the sites was called email and was invented by Ray Tomlinson of Bolt, Berank and Newman;

· 1973. The links were extended to Norway and England;

· 1974. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was published and the military and educational links diverged. Organisations like NASA began to experiment with computer networks, and the networks began to interconnect and the name Internet was coined;

· 1976. The Queen sends an email from RSRE Malvern.

· 1983. TCP/IP become the protocol standard for ARPAnet. Scott Fahlman invents the smiley to convey emotions in email;

· 1984. In the US, the NSF built high speed, long distance lines that connected supercomputer sites across the USA. These eventually replaced the original ARPAnet. In time, NSFnet was joined by other networks at dozens of universities, research laboratories and high-tech companies. The system for assigning names to computers on the network was introduced - DNS. JANet was launched to connect British Universities;

· 1986. The NSF established its own faster network NSFnet and Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) was introduced making on-line interactive discussion a reality. Backbone speed was 56 Kbps;

· 1987. 1000th RFC and 10,000th host;

· 1988. Robert Tappan Morris releases the first Internet Worm and CERT was set up in response to this. Backbone speed upgraded to 1.544Mbps. IRC developed;

· 1989. 100,000th host. Cuckoo's Egg released by Cliff Stoll telling true story of East German cracker accessing US installations;

· 1990. ARPAnet ceased to exist and the Internet effectively took its role;

· 1991. Gopher, a software program for retrieving information from servers on the Internet was made available by the University o f Minnesota. The US Government announced that it no longer intended to restrict activity on the Internet to research. This policy shift was sufficient for 12 companies to co-operate and produce CIX. Phil Zimmerman released PGP. Backbone speed upgraded to 44.736 Mbps;

· 1992. The World Wide Web became a possibility after CERN, in Switzerland, released hypertext. 1,000,000th Host. The author gets his first dialup email account with Demon Internet (November 1992);

· 1993. Mosaic, a software program to browse Web sites written by Marc Andreesen, was released followed by Netscape;

· 1994. Shopping Malls arrive on the Internet. The UK Treasury goes on line and the first cyberbank opens. The first banner adverts appeared for Zima (a drink) and AT&T;

· 1995. Traditional dialup services (AOL, CompuServe etc) start to provide dialup services. The Vatican goes on line. A number of Internet companies go public. Netscape leads the field with the largest ever IPO on NASDAQ. DEC launches AltaVista, which claims to index every HTML page there is. Jeff Bezos launches Amazon.com. eBay is launched;

· 1996. 9,272 organizations find themselves unlisted after the InterNIC drops their name service as a result of not having paid their domain name fee. Various ISPs suffer extended service outages, bringing into question whether they will be able to handle the growing number of users. AOL (19 hours), Netcom (13 hours), AT&T WorldNet (28 hours - email only). China requires users of the Internet to register with the Police. Saudi Arabia restricts use to Universities and Hospitals. Domain name tv.com sold to CNET for US$15,000. Backbone speed upgraded to 622 Mbps;

· 1997. 2000th RFC. 16 Million hosts. 1,000,000th Domain name registered (March 6th for Bonny View Cottage Furniture Company);

· 1998. 3,000,000th Domain name registered. US Postal authorities allow purchase of postage stamps on line for downloading and printing. Gigabit Ethernet standard ratified. Google is launched;

· 1999. First full service bank opens on the Internet (First Internet Bank of Indiana). First forged web page, looking like Bloomberg, raises the shares of a small company by 31% (7th April). Melissa strikes. 5,000,000th Domain name registered. First Cyberwar starts between Serbia and Kosovo. Shawn Fanning Launches Napster - record labels are furious;

· 2000. 10,000,000th Domain name registered. French Courts require that 'hate' memorabilia for sale on Yahoo's auction site must be removed. Gnutella is launched. ICANN selects new top level domains. Backbone is upgraded to IPv6;

· 2001. Forwarding email becomes illegal in Australia (Digital Agenda Act). Napster forced to suspend service after legal action. Taliban bans the Internet in Afghanistan. Nimda released on the Internet;

· 2002. Distributed denial of Service attack hits 13 DNS root servers, causing national security concerns;

· 2003. The first official Swiss online election takes place in Anières (7 Jan), SQL Slammer (goes round the world in 10 minutes and takes out 3 of the 13 DNS Servers). Followed by SoBig.F (19 Aug) and Blaster (11 Aug);

· 2004. Lycos Europe releases a screen saver to help fight spam by keeping spam servers busy with requests (1 Dec). The service is discontinued within a few days after backbone providers block access to the download site and the service causes some servers to crash.

.Web 2.0
Beginning in 2002, new ideas for sharing and exchanging content ad hoc, such as Weblogs and RSS, rapidly gained acceptance on the Web. This new model for information exchange, primarily featuring DIY user-edited and generated websites, was coined Web 2.0.

The Web 2.0 boom saw many new service-oriented startups catering to a new, democratized Web. Some believe it will be followed by the full realization of a Semantic Web.
Predictably, as the World Wide Web became easier to query, attained a higher degree of usability, and shed its esoteric reputation, it gained a sense of organization and unsophistication which opened the floodgates and ushered in a rapid period of popularization. New sites such as Wikipedia and its sister projects proved revolutionary in executing the User edited content concept. In 2005, 3 ex-PayPal employees formed a video viewing website called YouTube. Only a year later, YouTube was proven the most quickly popularized website in history, and even started a new concept of user-submitted content in major events, as in the CNN-YouTube Presidential Debates.

The popularity of YouTube and similar services, combined with the increasing availability and affordability of high-speed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video-content hosting and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos to be embedded on third party websites without payment or permission.

This combination of more user-created or edited content, and easy means of sharing content, such as via RSS widgets and video embedding, has led to many sites with a typical "Web 2.0" feel. They have articles with embedded video, user-submitted comments below the article, and RSS boxes to the side, listing some of the latest articles from other sites.

Continued extension of the World Wide Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined Intelligent Device Management. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the expanded computing power of their devices to enhance their usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity, manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices they have sold and shipped to their customers, and customers are able to interact with the manufacturer (and other providers) to access new content.
Lending credence to the idea of the ubiquity of the web, Web 2.0 has found a place in the global English lexicon. On June 10, 2009 the Global Language Monitor declared it to be the one-millionth English word.

Say Cheese!

Cheese first appeared somewhere around 7,000 B.C. in the Neolithic period, which is at about the same time humans began to breed livestock. Legend has it that a desert nomad was transporting milk in a pouch made from a sheep’s stomach. Eventually, the rennet in the lining of the pouch, combined with the heat of the sun, caused the milk to separate into curd and whey. Curious, and no doubt hungry, the nomad drank the whey and tasted the curd. We can safely guess that he enjoyed the experience! This method of transforming milk was kept a closely-guarded secret for many years. In ancient Egypt, for example, only priests were privileged with this secret.

The word “fromage”, French for cheese, comes from the Latin “forma”. Originally, curdled milk was placed in perforated moulds to allow the whey to drain away. The Latin word for these containers was “forma”. Around the13th Century, forma became formage and finally in the 15th Century formage became fromage. The word cheese on the other hand comes from the Latin caseus, which translated into cese in Old English and eventually became cheese!

At first, the Romans and the Greeks considered cheese a luxury food, accessible only to the wealthy. Eventually though, it became a staple food that was used in both sweet and salty dishes. During the Roman Empire, cheese-making had advanced to the point where over thirteen varieties of cheeses were produced. It was during that time in fact that, in an effort to perfect the curd-draining process, the Romans invented the cheese press, a technique that they exported as far as Great Britain.

It was during the Middle-Ages that European monks invented ripening and ageing techniques for cheese. The monks produced milder-tasting cheeses. In the Jura and the Alps, communities of mountain farmers would get together in dairy associations, enabling them to produce first-rate, quality cheeses. In the 7th Century, many cheeses came to be known by the region in which they were produced. Names such as le Poitou, Munster, Gorgonzola and Maroilles are now commonplace.

In 1217, Blanche de Navarre sent two hundred Brie cheeses to Philippe Auguste so that he may offer them to the women he was courting…even back then, the nutritional virtues of cheese were well-recognized!

In the 13th Century, in Déservilliers, France, the first known cheese cooperative was created by women dairy farmers looking to increase their revenues from milk production.

In the 16th Century, Queen Elizabeth I was instrumental in officially promoting Cheshire cheese, a product that had being produced for three centuries.

The soft cheese industry got started around 1850 by Charles Gervais after his visit with a farmer, Dame Héroult, who made fresh, unripened cheese. The man behind the “petits suisses”, Gervais perfected a technique that involved draining the curds by layers. Pressure was created by piling the canvas bags containing the curds one on top of the other.

In the 19th Century, a chemist and biologist named Louis Pasteur proved that heating milk at sufficiently high temperatures for a specific amount of time could destroy pathogenic bacteria. The process came to be known as pasteurization.

The Vache qui rit was created in 1921 and the Bleu de Bresse appeared around 1950. The Caprice des Dieux quickly followed in 1956.

In 1953, the Stresa Convention, ratified by France, Italy, Swiss, Austria, Scandinavia and Holland screened certain national sorts of cheese (Parmesan, Roquefort, Gorgonzola) from conterfeiting.

In the 20th Century, new industrially-made cheeses started to appear on the European market. The first television ad for cheese (le Boursin) aired in France, in 1968.

The earlier records in Vedic hymms in India (6000 to 4000 BC), Egyptian records (4000 BC) and Babylonian records (2000 BC) clearly show references to milk, butter and cheese.

However it is believed that with the advance of civilizations, the art of cheesemaking spread via the Mediterranean basin to the rest of the world.

Witten history is scarce until the period of the Greek and Roman empires, when various authors left written evidence.

Greek records go back to about 1550 BC and Roman records to 750 BC indicating that milk and cheese were important components of the diet of these peoples.

By the beginning of the Christian era, milk and cheese were used as food throughout Europe.

Milking operations and the curding of milk are depicted in an early Sumerian frieze from El-Ubaid. A food material found in the tomb of Hories Aha (3000 BC) has been proven to be cheese.
A scene on the walls of a Ramesid tomb (100 BC) depicts goats being led to pasture and also skin bags suspend from poles. Such bags were traditionally used to ferment milk by nomadic tribes.

During fermentation, drainage of whey though cloth or perforated bowls allowed the collection of curds which when salted became cheese.

There was indications that that the cheese was made n England well before the arrival of the Romans.

Cheese was included in the offering of ancient Greeks to the gods at Mount Olympus, and cheesemaking was clearly well established craft at the time of Homer’s writing.

Homer in 1184 BC referred to cheese made in caves by the “Cyclops” Polyphemus from milk of sheep and goats.

Later, Herodotus, 484 to 408 BC, referred to the “Scythian” cheese was made from mares’ milk, while Aristotle (384 to 322 BC) noted that “Phrygian” cheese was made from the milk of mares and asses.

By the fourteen century cheesemaking was a considerably industry in Switzerland, but export was forbidden. At this time, a cheese market was operating in Gouda, Holland. It is reported that the first cooperative cheese factory was started at Voralberg in the Balkans in about 1380.

By 1500m it is recorded that the expansion of cheesemaking in England, France, Germany and Holland resulted in Italy losing its dominant position as a cheesemaker.

Who invented Swiss cheese?

Swiss cheese was mentioned by the first century Roman historian Pliny the Elder, who called it Caseus Helveticus - the "cheese of the Helvetians", one of the tribes living in Switzerland at the time.

From cottage cheese to hard cheese
For centuries the standard type was cottage cheese, made by souring milk, and which did not keep. The technique of using rennet - a substance taken from the stomach lining of calves - to make hard cheese first appeared in Switzerland around the 15th century. Since such cheese could be stored for lengthy periods it is not surprising that it soon became part of the basic fare of travellers.

The monks who looked after the hospices at the top of some of the major passes, snowed in for part of the year, kept large stocks of it for their guests. And they needed to be large: one guest who passed through the hostel on the Great St Bernard pass was Napoleon, who - with the help of his 40,000 troops - got through a tonne and a half of the monks' cheese in May 1800. (The monks had to wait 50 years before they saw any money at all for it, and it was only in 1984 that the then French President, François Mitterrand, made a token payment of the rest.)

Cheese Variety Year(AD)
-------------- --------
Gorgonzola 879
Roquefort 1070
Grana 1200
Cheddar 1500
Parmesan 1579
Gouda 1697
Gloucester 1697
Stilton 1785
Camembert 1791

Here are some of the more popular types of cheese:

Swiss Cheese originally from Switzerland. This famous cheese has holes all over which are known as ‘eyes’. The larger the eyes are, the more pronounced its flavour will be. Longer aging or higher temperatures will cause the bacteria and enzymes to produce a sharper flavour. One of the down sides to Swiss cheese is that because of the holes it doesn't slice well, and will at times fall apart. Swiss cheese is known for its distinct look and its nutty, bitter yet sweet flavour.

Feta cheese is Greek cheese. It is made with a combination of goat and sheep milk. This cheese has to be matured for several months. Feta cheese is white and usually shaped into squares. It can be soft to semi-firm cheese. The flavour of feta can be salty and tangy or also range from mild to sharp depending on its aging process. The processed cheese crumbles easily. It can be used as a table cheese, as well as in salads, pastries and also for baking purposes.

Blue cheese is a combination of cow, sheep and goat milk. It is usually blue or blue- green, with veins or spotty which is due to mold. It is usually aged in a temperature controlled environment has a very distinctive aroma. The flavour of blue cheese is salty and very sharp. Because of its strong flavour and smell, the taste of blue cheese is one that has to be acquired.

Cheddar cheese originated in the English village of Cheddar. It is a relatively firm, light yellow to off-white, and at times a sharp tasting cheese. The taste of cheddar cheese can be mild or sharp. The sharper the cheddar, the more pungent and complex it will taste.

Cream cheese is a type of white cheese. It is not naturally aged and is meant to be eaten fresh, which is why it differs from other soft cheeses. Cream cheese is also very difficult to manufacture. However, small adjustments in the timing of the development process can result in a distinction in flavour and texture. It is sweet, soft, creamy and mild to taste. Because the fat content of cream cheese is higher than other cheeses, stabilizers are added to lengthen its shelf life. Cream cheese is used in different kinds of savoury snacks such as bread, bagels and crackers. It can also be used in cheesecakes and salads.

Other cheeses include soft cheeses such as cottage cheese, ricotta, brie, roquefort and mozzarella, cheeses. These cheeses usually go well with fruits or meats. They can be used as breakfast cheeses for instance, in an omelette or even as pasta fillings. They are typically lightly flavoured and extremely high in moisture.

Semi-hard cheeses have a more bold flavour than semi-soft cheeses and goes wonderfully with fruits and crackers. Cheeses in this class include provolone and gouda to name a couple. Cheeses in this category are smoked. Smoked gouda is especially common. Milder gouda melts well and may be used in casseroles or as stuffing for certain kind of meats.

Hard cheeses include parmesan, romano and gruyere. Parmesan and romano are known as grated powder which is used to top spaghetti, but these cheeses are also used as side dishes for fruit, wine, nuts and other appetizers.

The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is closely derived. The earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means "to ferment, become sour".

More recently, cheese comes from chese (in Middle English) and cīese or cēse (in Old English). Similar words are shared by other West Germanic languages — West Frisian tsiis, Dutch kaas, German Käse, Old High German chāsi — all from the reconstructed West-Germanic form *kasjus, which in turn is an early borrowing from Latin.

When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries' supplies, a new word started to be used: formaticum, from caseus formatus, or "molded cheese" (as in "formed", not "moldy"). It is from this word that the French fromage, Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo is derived from. Cheese itself is occasionally employed in a sense that means "molded" or "formed". Head cheese uses the word in this sense.

The main factor in the categorization of these cheese is their age. Fresh cheeses without additional preservatives can spoil in a matter of days.

For these simplest cheeses, milk is curdled and drained, with little other processing. Examples include cottage cheese, Romanian Caş, Neufchâtel (the model for American-style cream cheese), and fresh goat's milk chèvre. Such cheeses are soft and spreadable, with a mild taste.

Whey cheeses are fresh cheeses made from the whey discarded while producing other cheeses. Provençal Brousse, Corsican Brocciu, Italian Ricotta, Romanian Urda, Greek Mizithra, and Norwegian Geitost are examples. Brocciu is mostly eaten fresh, and is as such a major ingredient in Corsican cuisine, but it can be aged too.

Traditional pasta filata cheeses such as Mozzarella also fall into the fresh cheese category. Fresh curds are stretched and kneaded in hot water to form a ball of Mozzarella, which in southern Italy is usually eaten within a few hours of being made. Stored in brine, it can be shipped, and is known worldwide for its use on pizzas. Other firm fresh cheeses include paneer and queso fresco.

Classed by texture

Categorizing cheeses by firmness is a common but inexact practice. The lines between "soft", "semi-soft", "semi-hard", and "hard" are arbitrary, and many types of cheese are made in softer or firmer variations. The factor that controls cheese hardness is moisture content, which depends on the pressure with which it is packed into molds, and aging time.

Semi-soft cheeses and the sub-group, Monastery cheeses have a high moisture content and tend to be bland in flavor. Some well-known varieties include Havarti, Munster and Port Salut.

Cheeses that range in texture from semi-soft to firm include Swiss-style cheeses like Emmental and Gruyère. The same bacteria that give such cheeses their eyes also contribute to their aromatic and sharp flavors. Other semi-soft to firm cheeses include Gouda, Edam, Jarlsberg and Cantal. Cheeses of this type are ideal for melting and are used on toast for quick snacks.

Harder cheeses have a lower moisture content than softer cheeses. They are generally packed into molds under more pressure and aged for a longer time. Cheeses that are semi-hard to hard include the familiar Cheddar, originating in the village of Cheddar in England but now used as a generic term for this style of cheese, of which varieties are imitated worldwide and are marketed by strength or the length of time they have been aged. Cheddar is one of a family of semi-hard or hard cheeses (including Cheshire and Gloucester) whose curd is cut, gently heated, piled, and stirred before being pressed into forms. Colby and Monterey Jack are similar but milder cheeses; their curd is rinsed before it is pressed, washing away some acidity and calcium. A similar curd-washing takes place when making the Dutch cheeses Edam and Gouda.

Hard cheeses — "grating cheeses" such as Parmesan and Pecorino Romano—are quite firmly packed into large forms and aged for months or years.
St. Pat Cow's Milk Cheese

Classed by content

Some cheeses are categorized by the source of the milk used to produce them or by the added fat content of the milk from which they are produced. While most of the world's commercially available cheese is made from cows' milk, many parts of the world also produce cheese from goats and sheep, well-known examples being Roquefort, produced in France, and Pecorino Romano, produced in Italy, from ewe's milk. One farm in Sweden also produces cheese from moose's milk. Sometimes cheeses of a similar style may be available made from milk of different sources - Feta style cheeses, for example, are made from goats' milk in Greece and from sheep and cows' milk elsewhere.

Double cream cheeses are soft cheeses of cows' milk enriched with cream so that their fat content is 60% or, in the case of triple creams, 75%.
Soft-ripened and blue-vein

There are three main categories of cheese in which the presence of mold is a significant feature: soft ripened cheeses, washed rind cheeses and blue cheeses.
Vacherin du Haut-Doubs cheese, a French cheese with a white Penicillium mold rind.

Soft-ripened cheeses begin firm and rather chalky in texture, but are aged from the exterior inwards by exposing them to mold. The mold may be a velvety bloom of Penicillium candida or P. camemberti that forms a flexible white crust and contributes to the smooth, runny, or gooey textures and more intense flavors of these aged cheeses. Brie and Camembert, the most famous of these cheeses, are made by allowing white mold to grow on the outside of a soft cheese for a few days or weeks. Goats' milk cheeses are often treated in a similar manner, sometimes with white molds (Chèvre-Boîte) and sometimes with blue.

Washed-rind cheeses are soft in character and ripen inwards like those with white molds; however, they are treated differently. Washed rind cheeses are periodically cured in a solution of saltwater brine and other mold-bearing agents that may include beer, wine, brandy, and spices, making their surfaces amenable to a class of bacteria Brevibacterium linens (the reddish-orange "smear bacteria") that impart pungent odors and distinctive flavors. Washed-rind cheeses can be soft (Limburger), semi-hard (Munster), or hard (Appenzeller). The same bacteria can also have some impact on cheeses that are simply ripened in humid conditions, like Camembert.
Stilton from England.

So-called blue cheese is created by inoculating a cheese with Penicillium roqueforti or Penicillium glaucum. This is done while the cheese is still in the form of loosely pressed curds, and may be further enhanced by piercing a ripening block of cheese with skewers in an atmosphere in which the mold is prevalent. The mold grows within the cheese as it ages. These cheeses have distinct blue veins, which gives them their name and, often, assertive flavors. The molds range from pale green to dark blue, and may be accompanied by white and crusty brown molds. Their texture can be soft or firm. Some of the most renowned cheeses are of this type, each with its own distinctive color, flavor, texture and smell. They include Roquefort, Gorgonzola, and Stilton.

Processed cheese is made from traditional cheese and emulsifying salts, often with the addition of milk, more salt, preservatives, and food coloring. It is inexpensive, consistent, and melts smoothly. It is sold packaged and either pre-sliced or unsliced, in a number of varieties. It is also available in aerosol cans in some countries.

We know fashion today.. Do we know how it began, and some more?

Fashion started in the beginning of time, when cave dwellers wore animal skins. The revolution in fashion was started by young teenagers who were like chameleons.
Fashion design is generally considered to have started in the 19th century with Charles Frederick Worth who was the first designer to have his label sewn into the garments that he created. Lanvin is the oldest extant fashion house worldwide, having been founded by Jeanne Lanvin, who began making dresses in 1909 and millinery even earlier.Lanvin made such beautiful clothes for her daughter that they began to attract the attention of a number of wealthy people who requested copies for their own children. Soon, Lanvin was making dresses for their mothers, and some of the most famous names in Europe were included in the clientele of her new boutique on the rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré, Paris. 1909, Lanvin joined the Syndicat de la Couture, which marked her formal status as a couturière.
From 1923, the Lanvin empire included a dye factory in Nanterre. 1920s, Lanvin opened shops devoted to home decor, menswear, furs and lingerie, but her most significant expansion was the creation of Lanvin Parfums SA in 1924 and the introduction of her signature fragrance Arpège in 1927, inspired by the sound of her daughter's practising her scales on the piano. A later perfume, "My Sin," is widely considered one of the most unique fragrances, an animalic-aldehyde based on heliotrope.

One of the most influential designers of the 1920s and '30s, Jeanne Lanvin's skilful use of intricate trimmings, virtuoso embroideries and beaded decorations in clear, light, floral colors became a Lanvin trademark.

So what are the various modes in fashion?
Haute couture: Until the 1950s, fashion clothing was predominately designed and manufactured on a made-to-measure or haute couture basis (French for high-fashion), with each garment being created for a specific client. A couture garment is made to order for an individual customer, and is usually made from high-quality, expensive fabric, sewn with extreme attention to detail and finish, often using time-consuming, hand-executed techniques. Look and fit take priority over the cost of materials and the time it takes to make.
Ready-to-wear: Ready-to-wear clothes are a cross between haute couture and mass market. They are not made for individual customers, but great care is taken in the choice and cut of the fabric. Clothes are made in small quantities to guarantee exclusivity, so they are rather expensive. Ready-to-wear collections are usually presented by fashion houses each season during a period known as Fashion Week. This takes place on a city-wide basis and occurs twice a year.
Mass market: Currently the fashion industry relies more on mass market sales. The mass market caters for a wide range of customers, producing ready-to-wear clothes in large quantities and standard sizes. Cheap materials, creatively used, produce affordable fashion. Mass market designers generally adapt the trends set by the famous names in fashion. They often wait around a season to make sure a style is going to catch on before producing their own versions of the original look. In order to save money and time, they use cheaper fabrics and simpler production techniques which can easily be done by machine. The end product can therefore be sold much more cheaply.
There is a type of design called "kitsch" design originated from the German word "kitschen" meaning "ugly" or "not aesthetically pleasing." Kitsch can also refer to "wearing or displaying something that is therefore no longer in fashion." Often, high-waisted trousers, associated with the 1980s, are considered a "kitsch" fashion statement.

World fashion industry
Fashion today is a global industry, and most major countries have a fashion industry. Some countries are major manufacturing centres, notably China, South Korea, Spain, Germany, Brazil, and India. Five countries have established an international reputation in fashion design. These countries are France, Italy, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and Japan.

American fashion design
The majority of American fashion houses are based in New York, although there are also a significant number in Los Angeles, where a substantial percentage of high fashion clothing manufactured in the US is actually made. There are also burgeoning industries in Miami, Chicago and especially San Francisco. American fashion design is dominated by a clean-cut, urban, casual style; reflecting the athletic, health-conscious lifestyles of American city-dwellers. A designer who helped to set the trend in the United States for sport-influenced day wear throughout the 1940s and 50's was Claire McCardell. Many of her designs have been revived in recent decades. More modern influences on the American look have been Calvin Klein, Ralph Lauren, Vera Wang, Anna Sui, Donna Karan, Tom Ford, LaQuan Smith, Kenneth Cole, Marc Jacobs, Tory Burch, Elie Tahari, Michael Kors, Betsey Johnson and Tommy Hilfiger.

British fashion design
London has long been the capital of the UK fashion industry and has a wide range of foreign designs which have integrated with modern British styles. Typical British design is smart but innovative yet recently has become more and more unconventional, fusing traditional styles with modern techniques. Among the most notable UK fashion designers are Burberry, Paul Smith, Vivienne Westwood, Stella McCartney, John Galliano, Jasper Conran and Alexander McQueen The last British Haute Couture House is said to be Saint-Hill & Von Basedow.

French fashion design
Most French fashion houses are in Paris, which is the capital of French fashion. Traditionally, French fashion is chic and stylish, defined by its sophistication, cut, and smart accessories. Among the many Parisian couture houses are Balmain, Hermès, Louis Vuitton, Chanel, Yves Saint Laurent, Christian Dior, Givenchy, Balenciaga and Chloé, who display their work at the designer collections that are held twice a year. Although the Global Language Monitor placed it 3rd in the Media, after Milan and New York, French fashion is internationally acclaimed and Paris remains the symbolic home of fashion.

Italian fashion design
Milan is Italy's capital of fashion. Most of the older Italian couturiers are in Rome. However, Milan and Florence are the Italian fashion capitals, and it is the exhibition venue for their collections. Italian fashion features casual elegance and luxurious fabrics. The first Italian luxury brand was the florentine Salvatore Ferragamo (who has exported exquisite hand-made shoes to the U.S. since the 1920s); among the best-known, exclusive fashion names, another florentine Gucci is the greatest-selling Italian fashion brand, and third greatest in the world, with worldwide sales of $7.158 billion dollars. Other well-known Italian fashion designers Valentino Garavani, Dolce & Gabbana, Bottega Veneta, Etro, Emilio Pucci, Roberto Cavalli, Versace, Giorgio Armani, Fendi, Borbonese, Prada, Loro Piana, Byblos, Alberta Ferretti, Moschino, Ermenegildo Zegna, La Perla, Agnona, Laura Biagiotti, Lancetti, Iceberg, Carlo Pignatelli, MIla Schön, Roberta di Camerino, Solidea, Krizia, S.Nick Barua, Trussardi and Missoni. Even though Milan is the national and worldwide capital of fashion, Rome, Florence, Turin, Naples and Venice also contain many high-end fashion boutiques and are international capitals. But there are However, many designers that are not very famous... or not "equal" to the nominated before. some of this stilist are Armando Sauzullo, Arianna Morelli or Carmentea Tsparopulos.

Swiss fashion design
Most of the Swiss fashion houses are in Zürich. The Swiss look is casual elegant and luxurious. The fabrics manufactured in St. Gallen are exported to the most important fashion Houses all over the World (Paris / New York / London / Milan/ Tokyo). The first Swiss luxury brand is Alvoni from the italo/Swiss designer Marianne Alvoni.

Japanese fashion design
Most Japanese fashion houses are in Tokyo. The Japanese look is loose and unstructured (often resulting from complicated cutting), colours tend to the sombre and subtle, and richly textured fabrics. Famous Japanese designers are Yohji Yamamoto, Kenzo, Issey Miyake (masterful drape and cut), and Comme des Garçons 's Rei Kawakubo, who developed a new way of cutting (comparable to Madeleine Vionnet's innovation in the 1930s).

Indian fashion design
Most of Indian fashion designers are born from bollywood industry. The likes of manish malhotra are one of them. Indian fashion week etc has really beome very popular nowadays.Fashion industry is growing at a very good pace.

Malaysian fashion design
Bernard Chandran successfully market batik to all over the world. Other noted Malaysian fashion designer is Jimmy Choo.

So what are the professions in fashion?
* A fashion designer conceives garment combinations of line, proportion, color, and texture. While sewing and pattern-making skills are beneficial, they are not a pre-requisite of successful fashion design. Most fashion designers are formally trained or apprenticed.
* A pattern maker (or pattern cutter) drafts the shapes and sizes of a garment's pieces. This may be done manually with paper and measuring tools or by using an AutoCAD computer software program. Another method is to drape fabric directly onto a dress form. The resulting pattern pieces can be constructed to produce the intended design of the garment and required size. Formal training is usually required for working as a pattern marker.
* A tailor makes custom designed garments made to the client's measure; especially suits (coat and trousers, jacket and skirt, et cetera). Tailors usually undergo an apprenticeship or other formal training.
* A textile designer designs fabric weaves and prints for clothes and furnishings. Most textile designers are formally trained as apprentices and in school.
* A stylist co-ordinates the clothes, jewelry, and accessories used in fashion photography and catwalk presentations. A stylist may also work with an individual client to design a coordinated wardrobe of garments. Many stylists are trained in fashion design, the history of fashion and historical costume, and have a high level of expertise in the current fashion market and future market trends. However, some simply have a strong aesthetic sense for pulling great looks together.
* A buyer selects and buys the mix of clothing available in retail shops, department stores and chain stores. Most fashion buyers are trained in business and/or fashion studies.
* A seamstress sews ready to wear or mass produced clothing by hand or with a sewing machine, either in a garment shop or as a sewing machine operator in a factory. She (or he) may not have the skills to make (design and cut) the garments, or to fit them on a model.
* A teacher of fashion design teaches the art and craft of fashion design in art or fashion school.
* A custom clothier makes custom-made garments to order, for a given customer.
* A dressmaker specializes in custom-made women's clothes: day, cocktail, and evening dresses, business clothes and suits, trousseaus, sports clothes, and lingerie.
* An illustrator draws and paints clothing designs for commercial use.
* A fashion forecaster predicts what colours, styles and shapes will be popular ("on-trend") before the garments are on sale in stores.
* A model wears and displays clothes at fashion shows and in photographs.
* A fit model aids the fashion designer by wearing and commenting on the fit of clothes during their design and pre-manufacture. Fit models need to be a particular size for this purpose.
* A fashion journalist writes fashion articles describing the garments presented or fashion trends, for magazines or newspapers.
* An alterations specialist (alterationist) adjusts the fit of completed garments, usually ready-to-wear, and sometimes re-styles them. NOTE: despite tailors altering garments to fit the client, not all alterationists are tailors.
* An Image Consultant, wardrobe consultant or fashion advisor recommends styles and colors that are flattering to the client.

So here is how it begins...

Since everything starts in school.. I thought I'll start off this blog penning down my Stanes School anthem, and my David House song..

STANES SCHOOL ANTHEM

Land of our birth we pledge to thee

Our love and toil in the years to be;

When we are grown and take our place,

As men and women with our race.

Father in heaven, who lovest all,

O help Thy children when they call

That they may build from age to age An undefiled heritage.

Teach us delight in simple things,

And mirth that has no bitter springs;

Forgiveness free of evil done.

And love to all men neath the Sun!

Land of our birth, our faith our pride,

For whose dear sake our fathers died;

O motherland we pledge to thee.

Head, heart and hands through the years to be!

DAVID HOUSE SONG (YELLOW HOUSE)

Marching onward, marching forward

'Tis the song we ever sing

"Mite to might " is David’s motto

From a shepherd to a king

Humble service

Cheerfully given

Courage to be true and strong

Faith in God will ever lead us onward

Help us strive to right each wrong.

So thus I remember life as it were.. with the green hills around me, the wattle groves and the tea estates. The mixed symphony of eucalyptus and pines that wafted up with the evening breeze right into our dorm. The study-halls that were never full, and the book room where girls never stopped gossiping amidst the cacophony from the piano. And who can forget the old love-tree (I am not sure if it stands any more, with all the construction that has happened) where hearts got made or broke. It was through this memory that I begin my sojourn to acquire, to learn, and to benefit. If not me, I wish for a universe that abounds with my memories, and my thoughts.. a level ground to run out any conquer any time I choose too, and welcome those who want to enter these misty lands, eager for adventure, and ready never to go back. This is how it begins...